Respiratory Paediatrics in Emergency Medicine Dr Louise Selby

Respiratory Paediatrics in Emergency Medicine Dr Louise Selby Dr Donna Mc. Shane

Contents • The upper respiratory tract. • The child with noisy breathing (upper airway). – Croup, bacterial tracheitis – Foreign body • • Pneumonia and complications Lower airway problems. Asthma. ‘Viral wheeze’. Bronchiolitis. Questions. Close.

Upper Respiratory Tract • Comprises of: – Nose in continuity with the sinuses and lacrimal sac – Nasopharnyx – Mouth and oropharnyx (plus Eustachian tube) – Larynx and laryngopharnyx. • Functions to: – Warm inspired air before it reaches lungs – Trap and remove particles – Innate/adaptive immunity

Approach to the Child with Noisy Breathing – Upper Airway • Parents descriptions of noisy breathing can be misleading. • Respiratory noises maybe intermittent and not necessarily present when the child reaches the department. • More than one respiratory noise maybe present concurrently. • Try and ascertain whether noise is timed with inspiration or expiration. • Particular attention paid to onset of stridor.

Upper Airway - Causes Noise Site of origin Causes Snuffles Blocked nasal passages Common cold Allergic rhinitis Stridor Extrathoracic airways (primarily inspiratory) Croup Bacterial tracheitis Epiglottitis Layrngomalacia Tracheomalacia Vocal cord paralysis Vocal cord dysfunction Foreign body Grunting Glottis Pneumonia Bacterial infection

Common Cold • Diagnosis of exclusion – inflammation of nasal epithelium alone. • Careful evaluation required in babies. • Ensure no fever >38 degrees and adequate feeding. • Consider choanal atresia as differential diagnosis – pass nasogastric tube down both nostrils.

Croup • Most common cause of acute stridor. • Accompanied by coryzal symptoms, hoarse voice, barking cough and fever. • Stridor results from viral inflammation and subglottic oedema. • Common causes including rhinovirus, respiratory syncitial virus or parainfluenza viruses. • Usually inspiratory (can be biphasic in severe disease). • Lasts 4 -5 days usually.

Croup - Management ‘Hands off’ approach. Oral dexamethasone 0. 15 mg/kg. Nebulised budesonide 1 -2 mg (age dependent) Nebulised adrenaline (1 ml/kg of 1: 1000 up to a maximum dose of 5 ml). • Expert assistance. • • • <5% children will require intubation.

Bacterial Tracheitis (1) • Rare. • Bacterial infection of the trachea with staphlococcus aureus, strep pneumoniae and streptococcus pyogenes. • Erythema, oedema and pus in the trachea. • ‘Toxic’/’septic’ looking child with fever, cough, hoarse voice and stridor, with increased work of breathing.

Bacterial Tracheitis (2) • Early threshold for HDU/PICU involvement. • Needs aggressive treatment with IV antibiotics. • May need ENT support.

Foreign Body Inhalation • Most common aged 1 -3 years – can be fatal. • Sudden onset stridor with no preceding fever or illness. • Upper airway involvement: – Complete obstruction with hypoxia and cardiorespiratory compromise. – Partial obstruction with cough, stridor, and respiratory distress. • Lower airway involvement can lead to collapse and consolidation. • Causes include nuts, seeds , small magnets, metallic parts in toys causing pressure necrosis of mucosal tissues. • Clinical examination may reveal unilateral wheeze and reduced breath sounds. • Chest x-ray may show air trapping, atelectasis, pneumothorax or be normal. • Requires rigid bronchoscopic removal +/- admission to PICU. • Complications of delayed diagnosis can include tracheal lacerations, inflammation, oedema, atelectasis and bronchopneumonia.

Pneumonia • An inflammatory disorder of the lung characterised by consolidation due to presence of exudate in alveolar spaces, with associated inflammation in interstitial fluids. • Community acquired pneumonia – usually acquired in a well individual outside of a hospital setting. • ‘Consider in children where there is fever >38. 5, chest recession and persistent raised respiratory rate. ’

Aetiology • Difficult to isolate specific organisms – cannot obtain samples in children. • Blood cultures taken after courses of oral therapy and only returning positive in invasive disease. • Mixed viral and bacterial infections are very common.

Management – CAP

Interesting X-Rays (1) Almost 2 year old boy, presented with 2 weeks of fever and later cough with increased work of breathing. Drinking, normal oxygen saturations, stable observations. What to do?

X–Ray (2) Starts oral antibiotics and returns after 5 days. Still spiking temperatures but tolerating fluids and oral antibiotics. What to do?

X – Ray (3) Returns 48 hours later. Still spiking temperatures after one week of oral antibiotics.

Asthma • 1. 1 million children in the UK have asthma, approximately 1 in 11. • Characteristics include: – Reversible airway obstruction – Airway hyper-responsiveness – Chronic inflammation.

Assessing Severity

Management/Basic Principles • Oxygen saturations >94% -> Inhaled beta 2 agonists (up to 10 puffs salbutamol). • Oxygen saturations <94% -> Nebulised beta 2 agonists with high flow oxygen. • Add in ipratropium bromide for symptoms refractory to salbutamol. • Oral prednisolone: age < 5 y = 20 mg, >5 years = 40 mg (unless unable to tolerate). • IV salbutamol 15 mcg/kg (max 250 micrograms) if failed response, followed by IV salbutamol infusion in HDU/PICU setting.

Discharge Important Points: Primary care follow up 48 h Asthma clinic WITHIN 30 DAYS

‘Viral Wheeze’ • Wheezing in <2 year olds can be difficult to manage. • Children can wheeze intermittently with viruses and response to bronchodilators is variable (multifactorial). • Consider a trial of bronchodilators where symptoms are a concern.

Bronchiolitis • ‘A seasonal viral illness characterised by fever, nasal discharge and dry wheezy cough. On examination there are fine inspiratory crackles and or high pitched expiratory wheeze. ’ • Age <1 year, peak incidence 3 -6 months, first winter. • Risk factors for severe disease include congenital heart disease, ex premature infants with chronic lung disease and parental smoking.

Admission Criteria

Investigations • Not needed unless there is diagnostic uncertainty or to aid further management (e. g. blood gas, IV access for IV fluids). • Nasopharyngeal aspirates are no longer routinely done unless a child is deteriorating and in need of HDU/PICU. • Treatment remains supportive care.

Summary • Covered some common upper and lower airway problems presenting in the emergency department. • Important points are mainly to do with discharge planning around paediatric asthma patients. • In general. paediatrics tends to have a more hands off approach in terms of investigations, chest x-rays and a higher threshold for nebulised therapies.

Any questions?

References • ERS Handbook of Paediatric Respiratory Medicine, Ernst Eber and Fabio Midulla (European Respiratory Society). • Cochrane database of systematic reviews: Nebulised epinephrine for croup in children. Cochrane Library 2013. • Cochrane database of systematic reviews: Glucocorticoids for croup. Cochrane Library 2011. • BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children, British Thoracic Society 2011. • BTS/SIGN guidance on the management of asthma, October 2014. • National Review of Asthma Deaths, Royal College of Physicians 2013. • SIGN Guidance Bronchiolitis in Children 2009.