Research Strategies How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions Module 2 1 Garber 2017

Why Do Psychology? The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do! 2 Garber 2017

What About Intuition & Common Sense? Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature. Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error. Human intuition is limited! 3 Garber 2017

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What is most likely to kill you? Murder? 6 Garber 2017

• There around 16, 238 murders per year in the United States. • In 2014 there were 32, 675 motor vehicle deaths. You are twice as likely to be killed in a car accident than murdered. • A 1999 report from the National Institutes of Health revealed that up to 98, 000 thousand U. S. patients die each year from preventable medical errors. You are six times more likely to be killed by your DOCTOR than to be murdered… 7 Garber 2017

Hindsight Bias is the “Iknew-it-all-along” phenomenon. The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. We exaggerate our ability so foresee events. Garber 2017 10

Those really were the droids you were looking for. Garber 2017 11

• The human mind is often so awkward and ill-regulated in the career of invention, that it is at first diffident, and then despises itself. For it appears at first incredible that any such discovery should be made, and when it has been made, it appears incredible that it should so long have escaped men’s research. • —FRANCIS BACON, Novum Organum, 1620 • Kurlansky, M. (2016). Paper: Paging through history. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 12 Garber 2017

Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know. Anagram WREAT WATER ETYRN ENTRY GRABE BARGE 13 Garber 2017

The Scientific Attitude Curiosity , Skepticism and Humility 14 Garber 2017

Critical Thinking Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation Does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly. It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions. http: //www. ted. com/talks/lang/eng /james_randi. html 17: 20 Garber 2017 The Amazing Randi 15

How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions? Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations. 16 Garber 2017

Theory A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression. 17 Garber 2017

Hypothesis A hypothesis is a testable prediction, (often prompted by a theory), to enable us to accept, reject or revise theory. A statement that can be tested with an experiment and gives direction to research People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed. Garber 2017 18

Research Observations Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self -esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis. 19 Garber 2017

Operational definition • A statement of the procedures used to define research variables • Allows and facilitates replication of observations • Operationally define shoe? 20 Garber 2017

Description Case Study A technique in which one individual is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers Animal language studies Problem? Garber 2017 21

Survey The self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people. 22 Garber 2017

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Survey Wording Effects Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid) 25 Garber 2017

Context Effects in Surveys In their experiment, Hyman & Sheatsley (1950) asked two questions, for one group the first question first and for the other group in the inverse order. Context effects play a huge role for survey outcomes (see Schwarz, 1999); here the percentages of agreement with the statement, depending on order: 1. Do you think the United States should let communist 36% 66% Contributor newspaper reporters from other countries come in here and send back to their papers the news as they see it? 2. Do you think a communist country like Russia should let American newspaper reporters in and send back to America the news as they see it? © POSbase 2004 Garber 2017 73% 90% 26

Survey Random Sampling If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them. 27 Garber 2017

Sampling in Surveys • Women and Love study done by Shere Hite 1974 • 98% Dissatisfied by their Marriage • 75% Extramarital Affairs • But to all of those who were mailed surveys only 4% responded. 28 Garber 2017

When randomly sampled • 93% of women are satisfied in their marriages • Only 7% had affairs 29 Garber 2017

Naturalistic Observation Observing and recording the behavior of organisms in their natural environment without interfering. 30 Garber 2017

Naturalistic Observation Activity 31 Garber 2017

Comparison Summary Research Method Advantages Limitations Naturalistic • More accurate than reports • Observer can alter after the fact behavior Observation • Behavior is more natural • Observational Bias • Cannot be generalized Case Studies Surveys • Depth • Not representative • Takes advantage of circumstances that could not be coordinated in an experiment • Time consuming and expensive • Immense amount of data • Sampling biases can skew results • Quick and inexpensive • Observational Bias • Bad Questions can corrupt data Garber 2017 • Accuracy depends on the ability and willingness 32 of the participants.

Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Indicates strength of relationship (0. 00 to 1. 00) Correlation coefficient r = + 0. 37 Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables. Garber 2017 Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) 33

Correlation and Causation Correlation does not mean causation! or 34 Garber 2017

Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. 35 Garber 2017

Correlation is not Causation: It only predicts!!!! • Children with big feet reason better than children with small feet. – • (Children who are older have bigger feet than younger children; thus they can reason better) The most predictive factor in the use of birth control use was the number of appliances in the home. – (Those who have electrical appliances probably have higher socioeconomic level, and thus are probably better educated. ) 36 Garber 2017

Correlation is not Causation: It only predicts!!!! • People who often ate Frosted Flakes as children had half the cancer rate of those who never ate the cereal. Conversely, those who often ate oatmeal as children were four times more likely to develop cancer than those who did not. – Cancer tends to be a disease of later life. Those who ate Frosted Flakes are younger. In fact, the cereal was not around until the 1950 s (when older respondents were children, and so they are much more likely to have eaten oatmeal. ) 37 Garber 2017

• Ice cream sales and the number of shark attacks on swimmers are correlated. • Skirt lengths and stock prices are highly correlated (as stock prices go up, skirt lengths get shorter). • The number of cavities in elementary school children and vocabulary size are strongly correlated. 38 Garber 2017

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Illusory Correlations • Redelmeier and Tversky (1996) assessed 18 arthritis patients over 15 months, while also taking comprehensive meteorological data. Virtually all of the patients were certain that their condition was correlated with the weather. • In fact the actual correlation was close to zero. 40 Garber 2017

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In a Gallup poll, surveyors asked, “Do you believe correlation implies causation? ’” • 64% of American’s answered “Yes. ” • 38% replied “No. ” • The other 8% were undecided. 44 Garber 2017

Scatter plots & Correlation Perfect positive correlation (+1. 00) Scatter plot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship. 45 Garber 2017

Scatter plots & Correlation Perfect negative correlation (-1. 00) No relationship (0. 00) The Scatter plot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the on the right shows no relationship between the two variables. 46 Garber 2017

30 29 Hypothetical data illustrating a correlation coefficient of +1. 00 28 Variable 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Variable 1 8 9 10 47 Garber 2017

30 29 Hypothetical data illustrating a correlation coefficient of -1. 00 28 Variable 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Variable 1 8 9 10 48 Garber 2017

Fig. 2. 4 30 29 28 Hypothetical data illustrating a correlation coefficient of zero Variable 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Variable 1 8 9 10 49 Garber 2017

Data showing height and temperament in people. 50 Garber 2017

Scatter plot The Scatter plot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of +0. 63. 51 Garber 2017

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Describing Data A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions. 53 Garber 2017

Measures of Central Tendency Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution. Garber 2017 54

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Measures of Central Tendency A Skewed Distribution 56 Garber 2017

Skewed Distributions Positive Mean > Median Negative Mean < Median Garber 2017 57

Measures of Variation Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. 58 Garber 2017

Standard Deviation 59 Garber 2017

Standard Deviation in Action • A couple needs to be within one standard deviation of each other in intelligence (10 points in either direction). —Neil Clark Warren, founder of e. Harmony. com 60 Garber 2017

Normal Curve A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean. 63 Garber 2017

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Order in Random Events Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. • For example, with coin flips you could see HHHHHH or TTTTTT or HHHTTT or HTHTHT or HTTHTH - they are all equally likely. • The outcome of one toss gives no clue to the outcome of the next toss. 70 Garber 2017

Order in Random Events Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order. You can find your birthday in the first 200 m digits of Pi…. Find a string in Pi 71 Garber 2017

Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research. Experiments isolate causes and effect. 73 Garber 2017

Exploring Cause & Effect Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control. Experimental group and Control group Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships. 74 Garber 2017

Evaluating Therapies Double-blind Procedure Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo 75 Garber 2017

Example of Experimenter Bias • Had subjects rated neutral photos • Those experimenters who were led to expect positive answers achieved positive results. • Those experimenters who were led to expect negative answers achieved negative results 76 Garber 2017

• Longitudinal Studies – Studies where the same subjects are studied over a period of time • Cross Sectional studies – Studies where different subjects are studied at from a variety of age groups 78 Garber 2017

Placebo Effect • A change in an illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect • People react to their own positive expectations Link 2: 57 79 Garber 2017

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Placebo Surgery? 85 Garber 2017

• "The fact that the effectiveness of arthroscopic lavage and debridement in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee is no greater than that of placebo surgery makes us question whether the $1 billion spent on these procedures might be put to better use. " 86 Garber 2017

Nocebo Effect • … people get worse because they believe they'll get worse. • Expectation alone, can make healthy people ill. 88 Garber 2017

Independent and Dependent Variables…a sample experiment Random Assignment Breast feeding example: Assigning participants to experimental (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes preexisting differences between the two groups. 90 Garber 2017

Independent Variable IV An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable. 91 Garber 2017

Dependent Variable DV A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable. 92 Garber 2017

Experiment summary 93 Garber 2017

FAQ Q 1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? Q 2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? Q 3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals? 94 Garber 2017

FAQ Q 4. Is it ethical to experiment on people? Q 5. Is psychology free of value judgments? Q 6. Is psychology potentially dangerous? 95 Garber 2017

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Preview Question • In the early years of psychology, a research participant might have been asked to observe carefully and systematically his conscious experiences. What method would the participant be using? A. Functionalism B. Introspection C. Biofeedback D. Dream analysis E. Behaviorism

Preview Question • In the early years of psychology, a research participant might have been asked to observe carefully and systematically his conscious experiences. What method would the participant be using? A. Functionalism B. Introspection C. Biofeedback D. Dream analysis E. Behaviorism

Preview Question • A study can be regarded as scientific only if – it utilizes an effective placebo – its findings are accepted by experts in the field – its findings are consistent with established theories – its conclusions are based on strong correlational data – its conclusions can be verified or refuted by subsequent studies

Preview Question • A study can be regarded as scientific only if – it utilizes an effective placebo – its findings are accepted by experts in the field – its findings are consistent with established theories – its conclusions are based on strong correlational data – its conclusions can be verified or refuted by subsequent studies

Preview Question • Which of the following is required for a psychological experiment? – More than one independent variable – Sophisticated equipment – Highly generalizable results – Precise operational definitions – A longitudinal design

Preview Question • Which of the following is required for a psychological experiment? – More than one independent variable – Sophisticated equipment – Highly generalizable results – Precise operational definitions – A longitudinal design

Preview Question • Operational definitions are used for which of the following reasons? A. They enable researchers to replicate studies by precisely describing the variables and how they are used. B. They exclude mental processes from being studied, as they are no longer considered part of the scientific study of psychology. C. They determine which test of statistical significance will be used to analyze the results of the experiment. D. They keep the participants in the control group from knowing they have received the placebo. E. They determine whether the experiment is better suited for a laboratory or a field setting.

Preview Question • Operational definitions are used for which of the following reasons? A. They enable researchers to replicate studies by precisely describing the variables and how they are used. B. They exclude mental processes from being studied, as they are no longer considered part of the scientific study of psychology. C. They determine which test of statistical significance will be used to analyze the results of the experiment. D. They keep the participants in the control group from knowing they have received the placebo. E. They determine whether the experiment is better suited for a laboratory or a field setting.

Preview Question • A person displays a set of rare behaviors that psychologists had not known about previously, because nobody had ever shown them before. The best strategy to investigate the nature of those behaviors is A. an experiment B. a survey C. a case study D. cross-sectional research E. correlational research

Preview Question • A person displays a set of rare behaviors that psychologists had not known about previously, because nobody had ever shown them before. The best strategy to investigate the nature of those behaviors is A. an experiment B. a survey C. a case study D. cross-sectional research E. correlational research

Preview Question • In Elizabeth Loftus’ study of memory reconstruction in which students viewed films of an automobile accident, the major influence on recall was the A. number of pictures the students were shown of the accident B. length of time the students viewed pictures of the accident C. wording of questions the students were asked about the accident D. location of the accident E. sex and age of the students

Preview Question • In Elizabeth Loftus’ study of memory reconstruction in which students viewed films of an automobile accident, the major influence on recall was the A. number of pictures the students were shown of the accident B. length of time the students viewed pictures of the accident C. wording of questions the students were asked about the accident D. location of the accident E. sex and age of the students

Preview Question • Which of the following is used to reduce the effects of confounding variables in experiments? A. Descriptive statistics B. Inferential statistics C. Meta-analysis D. An algorithm E. Random assignment 110 Garber 2017

Preview Question • Which of the following is used to reduce the effects of confounding variables in experiments? A. Descriptive statistics B. Inferential statistics C. Meta-analysis D. An algorithm E. Random assignment 111 Garber 2017

Preview Question • Students from a journalism class ask only their friends to participate in a school newspaper survey and neglect to ask the rest of the student body. The journalism students’ data may not be generalizable due to A. a lack of debriefing B. sampling bias C. participant bias D. social desirability bias E. placebo effects

Preview Question • Students from a journalism class ask only their friends to participate in a school newspaper survey and neglect to ask the rest of the student body. The journalism students’ data may not be generalizable due to A. a lack of debriefing B. sampling bias C. participant bias D. social desirability bias E. placebo effects

Preview Question • The correlation between two measures obtained on a group of individuals is graphically represented as a A. bar graph B. normal distribution C. histogram D. scatter plot E. frequency polygon

Preview Question • The correlation between two measures obtained on a group of individuals is graphically represented as a A. bar graph B. normal distribution C. histogram D. scatter plot E. frequency polygon

Preview Question • A test with normally distributed results was returned to a class of 100 students. Later, the teacher realized an error was made and added 10 points to each student’s score. Which of the following must have changed as a result of the increase in scores? A. A student’s percentile rank B. The standard deviation of the scores C. The variance of the scores D. The skew of the distribution E. The mode

Preview Question • A test with normally distributed results was returned to a class of 100 students. Later, the teacher realized an error was made and added 10 points to each student’s score. Which of the following must have changed as a result of the increase in scores? A. A student’s percentile rank B. The standard deviation of the scores C. The variance of the scores D. The skew of the distribution E. The mode

Preview Question • On a test, the mean score for a class of 100 students is 80 and the standard deviation of the scores is 10. The professor who gave the test then realizes that she made a scoring error, which she corrects by adding 5 points to each student’s score. The standard deviation of the students’ new scores is A. 5 B. 10 C. 10. 5 D. 15 E. 85

Preview Question • On a test, the mean score for a class of 100 students is 80 and the standard deviation of the scores is 10. The professor who gave the test then realizes that she made a scoring error, which she corrects by adding 5 points to each student’s score. The standard deviation of the students’ new scores is A. 5 B. 10 C. 10. 5 D. 15 E. 85

Preview Question • Standard deviation is a measure of how much A. a normal person’s behavior changes in a given time B. two sets of scores vary together C. difference there is between the highest and the lowest score in a sample D. scores in a group differ from the mean of that group E. scores from a sample differ from that of the population

Preview Question • Standard deviation is a measure of how much A. a normal person’s behavior changes in a given time B. two sets of scores vary together C. difference there is between the highest and the lowest score in a sample D. scores in a group differ from the mean of that group E. scores from a sample differ from that of the population

Preview Question In a normal distribution, which of the following statements is true about the area that falls between one standard deviation above and one standard deviation below the mean? A. It contains the bottom 50% of the distribution. B. It contains the middle 50% of the distribution. C. It contains the bottom 68% of the distribution. D. It contains the middle 68% of the distribution. E. It is the same as the square of the average deviation.

Preview Question In a normal distribution, which of the following statements is true about the area that falls between one standard deviation above and one standard deviation below the mean? A. It contains the bottom 50% of the distribution. B. It contains the middle 50% of the distribution. C. It contains the bottom 68% of the distribution. D. It contains the middle 68% of the distribution. E. It is the same as the square of the average deviation.

Preview Questions • An instructor conducted an experiment to determine the effects of two different methods of study on the amount students learned in introductory physics. The results showed that the average amount learned by the group using one method was greater than the group using the other. However the difference was not statistically significant. Which of the following is the most appropriate conclusion to be drawn? A. The group of students attaining the higher mean score had studied more than the other group. B. The better study method will have different effects for students of varying levels of ability C. Neither group learned a significant amount D. There is a positive correlation between the results of the two methods. E. There is a possibility that the difference between the two groups occurred by chance.

Preview Questions • An instructor conducted an experiment to determine the effects of two different methods of study on the amount students learned in introductory physics. The results showed that the average amount learned by the group using one method was greater than the group using the other. However the difference was not statistically significant. Which of the following is the most appropriate conclusion to be drawn? A. The group of students attaining the higher mean score had studied more than the other group. B. The better study method will have different effects for students of varying levels of ability C. Neither group learned a significant amount D. There is a positive correlation between the results of the two methods. E. There is a possibility that the difference between the two groups occurred by chance.

Preview Question • The most distinctive characteristic of the experimental method is that it A. Studies a few people in great depth B. Studies subjects in their natural environment C. Is an efficient way to discover how people feel D. Seeks to establish cause-effect relationships E. Provides a chronological basis for reaching conclusions

Preview Question • The most distinctive characteristic of the experimental method is that it A. Studies a few people in great depth B. Studies subjects in their natural environment C. Is an efficient way to discover how people feel D. Seeks to establish cause-effect relationships E. Provides a chronological basis for reaching conclusions

Preview Question • Of the following research methods, which can best establish a cause and effect relationship? A. Naturalistic observation B. A survey C. A test D. A case study E. An experiment

Preview Question • Of the following research methods, which can best establish a cause and effect relationship? A. Naturalistic observation B. A survey C. A test D. A case study E. An experiment

Preview Question • A research design involves two randomly assigned groups of participants. One group receives a one time treatment, and the other does not. Later the two groups are compared to see whether the treatment had an effect. Psychologists call this kind of research A. A correlational study B. an experiment C. a case study D. a survey E. a cross-sequential study

Preview Question • A research design involves two randomly assigned groups of participants. One group receives a one time treatment, and the other does not. Later the two groups are compared to see whether the treatment had an effect. Psychologists call this kind of research A. A correlational study B. an experiment C. a case study D. a survey E. a cross-sequential study

Preview Question • Experimental research differs from correlational research in that experimental research A. allows for prediction B. may reveal a causal relation C. establishes a mathematical relation D. defines the strength of the relation E. uses a dependent variable

Preview Question • Experimental research differs from correlational research in that experimental research A. allows for prediction B. may reveal a causal relation C. establishes a mathematical relation D. defines the strength of the relation E. uses a dependent variable

Preview Question • Which of the following research approaches would be best for testing the hypothesis that the presence of certain odors causes people to gamble more? A. Experimental B. Observational C. Correlational D. Survey E. Case study

Preview Question • Which of the following research approaches would be best for testing the hypothesis that the presence of certain odors causes people to gamble more? A. Experimental B. Observational C. Correlational D. Survey E. Case study

Preview Questions • A double-blind control is essential for which of the following? A. A study comparing the IQ test scores of children from different educational systems B. A study of relationships among family members C. An experiment to determine the effect of a food reward on the bar-pressing rate of a rat D. Assessment of a treatment designed to reduce schizophrenic symptoms E. A survey of drug use among teenagers

Preview Questions • A double-blind control is essential for which of the following? A. A study comparing the IQ test scores of children from different educational systems B. A study of relationships among family members C. An experiment to determine the effect of a food reward on the bar-pressing rate of a rat D. Assessment of a treatment designed to reduce schizophrenic symptoms E. A survey of drug use among teenagers

Preview Question • A disadvantage of longitudinal studies is that A. differences observed among participants of different ages are usually due to differences in the environment in which they were reared B. participants who drop out during the course of the study may be different in important ways from ones who do not drop out C. unfamiliarity with testing situations can put older participants at a disadvantage D. personality traits do not remain constant across the life span E. men and women confront different developmental crises in the course of their lives because of their different social roles

Preview Question • A disadvantage of longitudinal studies is that A. differences observed among participants of different ages are usually due to differences in the environment in which they were reared B. participants who drop out during the course of the study may be different in important ways from ones who do not drop out C. unfamiliarity with testing situations can put older participants at a disadvantage D. personality traits do not remain constant across the life span E. men and women confront different developmental crises in the course of their lives because of their different social roles

Preview Question • A client whose improvement during therapy is the result of his or her expectation of improvement rather than the result of therapy itself is showing A. tardive dyskinesia B. a placebo effect C. a disorder in remission D. negative transference E. catharsis

Preview Question • A client whose improvement during therapy is the result of his or her expectation of improvement rather than the result of therapy itself is showing A. tardive dyskinesia B. a placebo effect C. a disorder in remission D. negative transference E. catharsis

Preview Question • In an experiment to test the effects of hunger on aggressive behavior, aggressive behavior would be the A. placebo B. control C. hypothesis D. dependent variable E. independent variable

Preview Question • In an experiment to test the effects of hunger on aggressive behavior, aggressive behavior would be the A. placebo B. control C. hypothesis D. dependent variable E. independent variable