Research Methods The systematic and objective identification collection

Research Methods

• The systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination and use of information for the purpose of decision making related to the identification and solution of problems.

Types Problem Identification Problem Solving • Research that is • undertaken to help identify problems that are not necessarily apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in future. Research undertaken to help solve specific problems.

Basic vs. Applied Research: A Continuum Basic Research: Development of theory, principles and findings that generalize over a wide range of people, tasks, and settings. Applied Research: Development of theory, principles and findings that are relatively specific with respect to particular populations, tasks, products, systems and/or environments. 4

Characteristics of Basic Research Advantages • Greater generality • Conducted in controlled lab which prevents intrusion of potentially confounding variables – third-variable sources of causation • More confidence when drawing causal inferences between variables (the cause/effect relationship) Disadvantages • Lab environments can often be simplistic and/or artificial • And they may have little resemblance to the real world. 5

Characteristics of Applied Research Advantages • More likely to resemble real-world conditions • Can be more efficient in identifying design flaws and/or more effective alternative designs Disadvantages • Harder to generalize from the specific test group studied to the larger “population of interest” • Less control over potentially confounding events 6

Overview of Research Methods The Experimental Method What is it? – – Deliberately producing change in one or more independent variables (IVs) & measuring the effect of that change on one or more dependent variables (DVs) Manipulation performed while keeping all other variables under control The Goal: Control – Showing that the IVs, and no other variables, are responsible for any measurable differences in the DVs – Most direct way to ascertain cause/effect relationships – “Quasi-experiment” – when not all other influential variables can be controlled. 7

Overview of Research Methods Descriptive Research What is it? The use of procedures used to characterize a population in terms of some relevant set of attributes. • Criterion variables—Dependent variables including physical characteristics or performance measures • Stratification variables—Predictors, including age, sex, and education • Summary statistics include: Mean, median, mode, frequencies, percentiles Note: Cannot draw causal inferences from descriptive study results. 8

Overview of Research Methods: Evaluation Research What is it? • Procedures used to assess the performance of people using a product or system. • Widely used in government and industry. • Attempts to answer relevant questions in a practical way. 9

A Model of the Research Process: Phases of Research • • Idea gathering Phase (Curiosity, interest, and enthusiasm) Definition of the Problem (Identify an area of interest, then clarify and refine) • Design of the Procedures (Research design, subject selection, ethical considerations, type of observations, data analysis) • • Observation (“Doing the research”) Data-analysis (Statistical procedures should be appropriate to the question being asked and to the observation procedures being used. Should be specified in advance) • Interpretation (How do the results help answer the research question; how does the data contribute to knowledge in the field) • Communication/Publication (Purpose: (1) communication findings to appropriate audience; (2) allow replication of the study to strengthen confidence in the findings) 10

Significance of Research • Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation. • Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. • It has special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.

• It is important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. • For doctoral students, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain high position. • To professionals in research, research may mean source of livelihood.

• To philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights. • To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

• Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

Characteristics of Good Research ü Scientific method üMultiple methods ü Interdependence ü Value and cost of information ü Systematic ü Logical 1 - 15

Scientific Method is Devoid Of: • • • Personal beliefs Perceptions Biases Values Attitudes Emotions

Scientific Method – 5 Steps Asking the Question Problem Identification & Forming Hypothesis(es) Interpretation & Communication Testing the Hypothesis Data analysis Experimental Design & Methods Collecting Relevant Information (data)

Basic Assumptions Underlying Science • Determinism – belief that there are causes or determinants of behaviour. • Reality – belief that there is an underlying reality or truth in nature. • Rationality – events can be understood through the use of logical thinking. • Regularity – events in nature follow same laws. • Discoverability – it is possible to discover the uniformity or laws in nature.

Approaches to Scientific Research: Essential Requirements 1. Empirical. Gather evidence through observation and measurement. 2. Measurement. The variables of interest are measured— through multiple techniques and perspective, if possible. 3. Replicability. Variables are measured consistently, and in such a way as can be replicated by other researchers. 4. Objectivity. It is important to approach research questions and interpret results without bias. 19

Characteristics of the Scientific Approach • Control – eliminating the influence of extraneous variables that could affect the observations (confounds). • Operational definition – defining the steps or operations used to measure the phenomenon (e. g. , anxiety). • Replication – Reproducibility of the results.

• Description – Discover that the phenomenon exists – Demonstrate that the phenomenon exists – Describe its elements

• Explanation – Why does the phenomenon exist – What causes the phenomenon – Causes are the antecedent conditions that result in the occurrence or manifestation of the phenomenon.

Scientific Theory • Theory is the explanation for the phenomenon. • Theories not only describe why or how the phenomenon occurred but also guides the way for further research. • Theories are often referred to as models for a specific phenomenon.

Transtheoretical Model (Prochaska & Di. Clemente, 1992) Preparation Contemplation Action Precontemplation Maintenance Relapse

Where do the ideas come from? • • Everyday life Practical issues or needs Past research Theory

Sources of Research Questions • Everyday life – What are the most effective ways to teach research methods? – What personal characteristics make a favorable impression in a job interview? – What other questions come to mind?

Sources of Research Questions • Practical Issues – Why do some employees have very high absenteeism rates. – Why do more car accidents happen on specific stretches of the road? – Why are most heart attacks on a Monday morning?

Sources of Research Questions • Past research – Knowledge develops in small steps. Rarely does one study answer all the questions to the research topic.

Sources of Research Questions • Theories – Summarize & integrate existing knowledge – Suggests new relationships between factors – Helps one make new predictions about a phenomenon based on theory.

Defining the Research Question • Caveat – Not all ideas are subject to scientific enquire. • Research question must be capable of being confirmed. • The study must be feasible. • Variables in the problem should express a relationship: – E. g. , What relationship exists between two or more variables?

Defining the Research Question - continued • Problem should be capable of being stated in a question form. Examples are: – What is the effect of…. ? – Under what conditions do…. ? – Does the effect of…. ? • A research question defines the area of interest but is not a declarative statement like a hypothesis.

Defining Research Problem and objectives It is important to define research problem appropriately because it serves as a guideline to the researcher for conducting the rest of research project 1 - 32

Chain Restaurant Study One day I received a phone call from a research analyst who introduced himself as one of our alumni. He was working for a restaurant in Colombo and wanted help analyzing the data he had collected while conducting a marketing research study. When we met, he presented me with a copy of the questionnaire and asked how he should analyze the data. My first question to him was: 1 - 33

Chain Restaurant Study When he looked confused, I explained that data analysis is not an independent exercise. Rather, the goal of data analysis is to PROVIDE INFORMATION RELATED TO THE PROBLEM COMPONENTS. 1 - 34

Chain Restaurant Study I was surprised to learn that he did not have a clear understanding of the marketing research problem and that a written definition did not exist. So before going any further, I had to define the marketing research problem. Once that was done, I found that much of the data collected was not relevant to the problem. In this sense, the whole study was a waste of resources. A new study had to be designed and implemented to address the problem defined. 1 - 35

Symptom A symptom occurs as a result of a problem. It is often a complicated process to distinguish a symptom from a problem 1 - 36

Symptoms and Causes 1 - 37

Formulating Hypotheses • Stated in declarative form. • Posits a relationship between variables. • Ideally reflects a theory or body of literature. • Is brief and to the point. • Is testable.

Hypotheses • Scientific hypothesis states the ‘predicted’ relationship amongst the variables. • Null hypothesis is a statement of no relationship amongst the variables.

Examples of Hypotheses Research Idea Drug abuse and child abuse Question Hypothesis Is drug abuse related to child abuse? There is a positive relationship between drug abuse among adults and their physical and psychological abuse as children.

1. Does eating pizza make you fat? The experimental hypothesis: The more pizza a person eats, the more weight she/he will gain. The null hypothesis: a person’s weight will be the same regardless of how much pizza they eat. How will we operationally define our measures? 2. Does drinking beer and eating cheese-fries give you nightmares? The experimental hypothesis: People who consume beer and cheese-fries before bedtime will report more nightmares than those who do not. The null hypothesis: People who consume beer and cheese-fries before bedtime will report about the same number of nightmares as those who do not. 41