Research Methods Techniques of Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Research Methods

Techniques of Qualitative and Quantitative Data Collection Case studies – involve detailed observations of an individual over a period of time Observational studies – observation of behaviors in natural environment (naturalistic observation) or in a lab (controlled observation) Self reports – Journal or reflection on how participant is feeling/thinking Questionnaires – collection of data in written form Interviews – interaction between researcher and participant Brain imaging and recording technologies

Case Studies Advantages Limitations In depth information Time consuming Used to create research hypothesis Difficult to replicate Limited ability to generalise findings

Observational Studies Advantages Limitations If in naturalistic setting – reduces artificiality Must wait for behaviors to occur If in controlled setting allows control over variables Observer effects In controlled setting – artificiality effects Difficult to control IV

Self Reports Advantages Insight into individuals’ experiences Limitations Biased Inaccurate

Questionnaires Advantages Easy to replicate Quantitative data of subjective experiences Can be done on large samples Limitations Can be biased

Interviews Advantages Limitations Easy to replicate (if structured) Relies on objectiveness of interviewer If unstructured – can provide information not obtained in a survey/structured interview Can be difficult to collate qualitative responses

Brain Imaging and Recording Advantages Objective quantitative data Accurate Detailed Enables comparison Limitations Expensive Complex Often needs medical professional to run test

Experimental Research Construction of research hypothesis Identification (Unit 3) and operationalisation (Unit 4) of IV & DV Identification of EVs and possible CVs Individual participant differences Order effects Experimenter effects Placebo effects Artificiality Demand characteristics Non-standardized instructions and procedures Ways of minimizing CVs and EVs Type of experiment Counterbalancing Single and double blind procedures Placebos Sampling procedures Standardized instructions and procedures Evaluation of different types of experimental research designs Independent groups Matched participant Repeated measures Reporting Conventions

Construction of Research Hypothesis Must include Population of interest Operational IV Operation DV Direction of effect E. g It was hypothesized that males and females between the ages of 20 -40 years who drink 3 cups of coffee will have a higher recall of words on a list compared to adults who have not had any coffee

Identification & Operationalisation of IV Operationalisation Statement in terms of how it is measured E. G Age – Age in months Personality type – Score on Myer Brigg Personality Test Independent Variable A variable which is deliberately manipulated or changed by the experimenter

Identification & Operationalisation of DV Dependant Variable What is measured in the research It DEPENDS on the IV i. e. It changes because the IV has an effect (or not) E. g. It is hypothesised that males will be able to lift more weight than females IV – male/female DV – the amount of weight they can lift

Research Design Methods REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN Within participants design Involves using same subjects in each condition of an experiment Advantages Participant variables eliminated Use fewer participants to other designs Disadvantages Time consuming Drops out likely Order effects (practice, fatigue, boredom)

Matched Participants Design Involves using different but similar participants in each condition of the experiment Advantages Variable on which participants are matched will not influence DV Disadvantages Time consuming (therefore expensive) If one pair drops out, both scores must be eliminated Difficult to match some characteristics

Independent Groups Design Between participants design Involves using different subjects in each condition of the experiment Advantages Can be done all at one – drop outs unlikley Disadvantages Needs a large sample to

Reporting Conventions 1. Identify area of research and aim 2. Collect information 3. Identify research question and hypothesis 4. Design research method 5. Collect and analyze data 6. Draw conclusion 7. Report findings 8. Test conclusion

Sampling Procedures in Selection and Allocation of Participants Random sampling Stratified sampling Random-stratified sampling Convenience sampling (Unit 4) Random allocation of participants to groups Control and experimental groups

Sampling Procedures Random Sampling procedure in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Stratified Sampling and Stratified Random Sampling Identify characteristic that may have an effect on DV Determine proportions of characteristic in POPULATION Ensure proportions of participants with chosen characteristic are represented in sample

Allocation Procedures Once you have your sample – deciding who goes in the control and who goes in the experimental group Random Allocation Ensures each participant has an equal chance of being allocated to either the experimental or control group If sample is large enough – individual differences should be balanced E. g. if there is an imbalance (e. g. age/gender) then results confounded by age/gender

Control vs Experimental Groups Members of EXPERIMENTAL GROUP are exposed to the IV (receive the treatment) Members of CONTROL GROUP are NOT exposed to the IV Allows for comparison to be made

Statistics Measures of central tendency Mean Median Mode Interpretation of p-values and conclusions Reliability Internal consistency Validity Construct External Evaluation of research in terms of generalizing the findings to the population

Measures of Central Tendency Mean – add all scores and divide by number of scores Median – middle number Mode – most frequently occuring number

EVs and possible CVs Extraneous Variable other than the IV that COULD cause an unwanted change in the DV If we try to remove it, we say that it is a controlled variable Confounding Variable other than the IV that HAS an unwanted effect on the DV If this happens the research is not valid and no conclusions can be drawn

Types of EVs and CVs VARIABLE DESCRIPTION SOLUTION Individual Participant Differences in participants can have unwanted effect Large sample independent groups), repeated measures, matched participants Order Effects The order in which participants allows for practice or boredom Counter balancing

VARIABLE DESCRIPTION SOLUTION Placebo Effects Participants’ behavior influenced by EXPECTATION of how they should behave Single-blind procedure Artificiality Experiments take place in lab (not Keep conditions as natural) asked to do unusual tasks ‘normal’ as possible Naturalistic Observation Demand Characteristic s Cues that inform the participants Independent groups, about the purpose of the Single-blind, Doubleexperiment and expectation of the blind experimenter Nonstandardized Instructions and Procedures Manner in which instructions are given to different experimental groups Standard procedures and instructions Experimenter Effects The outcome is influenced by the experimenter unintentionally Double-blind

Reliability how consistent and stable the results of a study are Internal Consistency Extent to which items on a test contribute to final score E. g. if test item A is measuring how severe a symptom is, and D is also testing the same thing – they SHOULD obtain a similar result

Validity VALIDITY A test/study is measuring the phenomena it is meant to be measuring Construct Validity If items on test are measuring the behaviours/events they are meant to be measuring E. g. inferring violent behaviours are a measure of aggression External Validity How well results can be generalized or applied to the population

Generalizing Findings A GENERALISATION is a judgment of whether result can be applied to population of interest Sample must be representative Results must be statistically significant Potential CVs must be controlled for A CONCLUSION is the final decision about what the results mean Is the hypothesis supported or not? Should link back to aim

Ethical Principles and Professional Conduct The role of the experimenter Use of deception in research Protection and security of participants’ right Debriefing Confidentiality Voluntary participation Withdrawal rights Informed consent procedures Use of animals in research Advantages and limitations of the use of non-human animals in research in terms of generalization and conclusions Role of ethics committees

Use of Animals in Research Limitations Advantages Risk of artificiality Faster generations Limited ability to generalize to human populations Allow studies that would be unethical on humans Can be kept in labs for long periods of time Control variables No/limited demand characteristics

Ethics for use of Animals Any research with animals can be performed ONLY if research is justified Prediction of value against potential effects on animal well being If animal is to be subjected to pain Research only allowed if there is no alternative If surgery is required Animal must be given anaesthetic If life is to be terminated It must be done quickly and painlessly