Research Methods Descriptive Methods Experimental Methods Observation Survey

Research Methods

Descriptive Methods Experimental Methods ◦ Observation ◦ Survey Research ◦ Independent Groups Designs ◦ Repeated Measures Designs ◦ Complex Designs Applied Research ◦ Single-Case Designs and Small-n Research ◦ Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation

Descriptive Methods Observation Survey Research

Observation SAMPLING BEHAVIOR ◦ Time Sampling ◦ Situation Sampling OBSERVATIONAL METHODS DIRECT OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Observation without Intervention ◦ Observation with Intervention INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Physical Traces ◦ Archival Records RECORDING BEHAVIOR ◦ Comprehensive Records of Behavior ◦ Selected Records of Behavior ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA ◦ Qualitative Data Analysis ◦ Quantitative Data Analysis

Overview Observations ◦ Everyday gestures, expressions, postures - “universal signals” biasness, no record ◦ Scientific precisely defined conditions systematic and objective careful record keeping

Sampling Observations ◦ Across different situations and at different times ◦ representativeness – Generalization - External validity Time & event sampling ◦ choosing time intervals ◦ systematically or randomly ◦ Events that happen infrequently Situation Sampling ◦ different locations ◦ under different circumstances/conditions ◦ enhances the external validity

Observational Method

Observation without Intervention Naturalistic observation ◦ to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables. ◦ helps to establish the external validity of laboratory findings. When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control, naturalistic observation is an important research strategy.

Observation with Intervention The three methods of observation with intervention ◦ participant observation, structured observation, and the field experiment Participant Observation ◦ Allow to observe – things not usually open to scientific observation Reactivity ◦ individuals change their behavior when they know they are being Structured observations ◦ set up to record behaviors, difficult to observe otherwise Field experiment ◦ Manipulation of independent variables in a natural setting

INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS Advantage-nonreactive Physical Traces ◦ Use traces reflect the physical evidence of use (or nonuse) of items natural Vs controlled use ◦ Products are the creations, constructions, or other artifacts of behavior

Archival Records Archival records ◦ public and private documents describing the activities of individuals, groups, institutions, and governments, ◦ Running records: records that are continuously kept and updated e. g. , records of academic life ◦ Records of specific, episodic events: describe specific events or episodes in ones life e. g. , birth certificates, marriage, licenses Potential problems ◦ selective deposit, selective survival, and the possibility of spurious relationships.

Recording Behvior How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded ◦ Classification of behaviors is done after the observations As a general rule, records should be made during or as soon as possible after behavior is observed Field notes -observer’s running descriptions of the participants, events, settings, and behaviors of interest

Measurement Scales

Descriptive Methods Observation Survey Research USES OF SURVEYS CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS SAMPLING IN SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ ◦ SURVEY METHODS ◦ ◦ Survey Research Cross-Sectional Design Successive Independent Samples Design Longitudinal Design QUESTIONNAIRES ◦ ◦ ◦ Mail Surveys Personal Interviews Telephone Interviews Internet Surveys SURVEY-RESEARCH DESIGNS ◦ ◦ ◦ Basic Terms of Sampling Approaches to Sampling Questionnaires as Instruments Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Measures Constructing a Questionnaire THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ ◦ Correspondence Between Reported and Actual Behavior Correlation and Causality

USES OF SURVEYS To assess people’s thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Specific and limited in scope or more global in their goals. Determine biasness: examine the survey procedures and analyses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS Selection of sample (or samples) Predetermined set of questions

Issues in Survey Research Response set/style ◦ Response acquiescence (yea-saying) ◦ Response deviation (nay-saying) ◦ Social desirability Volunteer problem ◦ Volunteers differ from non-volunteers ◦ More intelligent, better educated, more cooperative

Survey Research (2) Sampling issues ◦ Random sample is expensive to collect ◦ Stratified sample Population is divided into smaller units and random sampling is done from the smaller units Have the selected samples represent the population 40% from California or 65% female or 22% Hispanic

Constructing Questions Research Objectives ◦ Attitudes and beliefs ◦ Facts and demographics ◦ Behaviors Wording ◦ Simplicity ◦ Multiple component questions ◦ Negative wording

Constructing Questions (2) Answer format ◦ Open-ended versus forced choice Answer options ◦ ◦ Format End points Symmetry Age/mental ability/physical ability/experience

Psychometric Scaling Guttman Scales (Cumulative Scales) ◦ Coefficient of reproducibility Ratio of number of appropriate responses to total number of responses % of responses that are completely cumulative Guttman said. 90 was minimal acceptable level Likert Scales (Summated Rating Scales) ◦ Reverse scoring ◦ Coefficient of correlation Do the questions match the overall score?

Psychometric Scaling (2) Other scales ◦ Error choice method ◦ Semantic differential ◦ Bogardus Social Distance Scale Self report method ◦ Rely on participant to provide data ◦ Benefit: ease ◦ Cost: not a direct test

Administration Personal administration Mail surveys ◦ Response rate Internet surveys Other technologies

Interviews Interviewer bias Face-to-face Telephone Focus groups

Age Cross-sectional method Longitudinal method Time-lag design Cross-sequential design ◦ Take a large sample of various ages and test them at the same time ◦ Follow same participants over a period of time ◦ Subjects of a particular age are tested at different time periods ◦ Test several different age groups at different times