REPRODUCTION OF SHEEP AND GOAT n Normal reproductive

REPRODUCTION OF SHEEP AND GOAT n Normal reproductive caharacteristics Age at puberty Age to breed Heat periods Gestation period n The importance of fertility in animal breeding n The importance of fertility in animal improvement

Fertility traits of ewes and goats Estrous rate Ovulation rate Pregnancy rate Lambing / Kidding rate Lamb / Kid production Litter Size Single lambing / kidding rate Twinning rate

Factors affecting reproduction A. The factors related to animals 1. Breed B. The factors related to environment 2. Age 1. Season 3. Body structure (Live weight, body 2. Nutrition condition) 4. Birth weight 5. Prenatal and postnatal survival 6. Anatomical disorders 7. Some diseases 3. The other environmental factors

Increasing Fertility I. Animal Improvement a. Selection b. Crossbreeding II. Environment Improvement 1. Nutrition improvement (and flushing) 2. Early breeding 3. Shortened lambing interval a. Lambing twice a year b. Lambing three times in two years

Growth and Meat Production q Growth could be defined as the increase in size of bones, muscles, internal organs, and other parts of the body until the animal reaches its full mature size. Growth is the normal process in prenatal and postnatal periods.

Growth and Meat Production Kg or g Live Weight Daily live weight gain Age in months

Growth and Meat Production Figures: Meat yield is the most important production of small ruminants (Photos were taken by the author)

Growth and Meat Production 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure: The cuts of carcass (Yakan and Ünal, 2010) Leg Foreleg Back Loin Neck Breast+ Flank

Meat Production Table: Some slaughter traits of Akkaraman, Morkaraman and Turkish Merino sheep breeds (Teke and Ünal, 2009)

Table: Some slaughter traits of Akkaraman, Kıvırcık x Akkaraman and Chios x Akkaraman crossbreds (Ünal et al. , 2006) Genotypes Akkaraman (n= 6) ± ± ± 0. 47 0. 45 0. 40 0. 32 0. 13 KAF 2 (n= 6) 45. 12 22. 57 22. 06 50. 02 48. 89 ± ± ± 0. 42 0. 33 0. 15 0. 41 0. 33 KAB 1 (n= 6) Slaughter weight (kg) Hot carcass weight with tail (kg) Cold carcass weight with tail (kg) Dressing percentage Cold dressing percentage 45. 43 22. 95 22. 39 50. 52 49. 28 45. 23 22. 29 21. 79 49. 28 48. 18 ± ± ± 0. 40 0. 17 0. 36 0. 27 Non- carcass components (as % of slaughter weight) Head Feet Skin Heart + lungs + liver Spleen Kidney Digestive tract (full) Digestive tract (empty) 4. 07 ± 0. 36 1. 87 ± 0. 11 13. 12 ± 0. 56 4. 03 ± 0. 17 0. 23 ± 0. 09 0. 28 ± 0. 06 22. 10 ± 1. 10 10. 30 ± 0. 75 4. 23 ± 0. 27 2. 06 ± 0. 15 11. 44 ± 0. 61 4. 39 ± 0. 23 0. 26 ± 0. 07 0. 27 ± 0. 07 21. 50 ± 1. 25 9. 33 ± 0. 86 4. 60 ± 0. 41 2. 17 ± 0. 12 10. 90 ± 0. 49 4. 47 ± 0. 18 0. 28 ± 0. 07 0. 30 ± 0. 05 22. 02 ± 0. 95 9. 99 ± 0. 91 Distribution of fat Omental fat weight (g) Kidney + pelvic fat weight (g) Tail fat weight (kg) Back fat thickness over MLD (mm) MLD area (cm 2) 510 ± 26 a 134 ± 21 a 3. 68 ± 0. 03 a 3. 5 ± 0. 21 14. 67 ± 0. 74 650 ± 32 b 190 ± 19 b 1. 44 ± 0. 05 bc 5. 2 ± 0. 16 14. 15 ± 1. 14 713 ± 36 c 289 ± 22 c 1. 12 ± 0. 04 b 6. 3 ± 0. 11 13. 02 ± 0. 57 CAF 2 (n= 6) 45. 33 22. 69 22. 28 50. 06 49. 15 ± ± ± 0. 36 0. 23 0. 19 0. 51 0. 17 CAB 1 (n= 6) 45. 10 21. 77 21. 11 48. 25 46. 79 ± ± ± P val ue 0. 16 0. 22 0. 34 0. 28 nsd nsd nsd 4. 50 ± 0. 36 1. 92 ± 0. 13 11. 71 ± 0. 63 4. 41 ± 0. 16 0. 30 ± 0. 08 21. 20 ± 1. 35 9. 40 ± 0. 78 4. 54 ± 0. 45 1. 77 ± 0. 16 12. 08 ± 0. 52 4. 65 ± 0. 19 0. 31 ± 0. 08 0. 24 ± 0. 07 22. 76 ± 2. 10 10. 70 ± 1. 10 nsd nsd 585 ± 0. 19 ab 158 ± 20 ab 2. 19 ± 0. 06 c 4. 3 ± 0. 22 14. 07 ± 1. 44 620 ± 0. 17 b 196 ± 17 b 1. 52 ± 0. 06 bc 4. 8 ± 0. 17 12. 78 ± 1. 02 ** ** * nsd

Table: Some carcass traits of Akkaraman, Kıvırcık x Akkaraman and Chios x Akkaraman crossbreds (Ünal et al. , 2006) Genotypes P value A KAF 2 KAB 1 CAF 2 CAB 1 Proportion of carcass cuts (out of 100) Leg Foreleg Back Loin Remainder 36. 13 ± 0. 70 19. 49 ± 0. 45 9. 55 ± 0. 34 7. 35 ± 0. 24 a 27. 48 ± 0. 51 34. 25 ± 0. 95 17. 81 ± 0. 41 10. 54 ± 0. 38 9. 52 ± 0. 23 b 27. 88 ± 0. 49 34. 72 ± 0. 83 18. 21 ± 0. 38 9. 59 ± 0. 35 10. 19 ± 0. 25 b 27. 49 ± 0. 57 35. 04 ± 0. 71 18. 52 ± 0. 51 10. 11 ± 0. 37 8. 70 ± 0. 29 ab 27. 63 ± 0. 59 34. 15 ± 0. 89 19. 71 ± 0. 47 10. 36 ± 0. 39 8. 37 ± 0. 25 ab 27. 41 ± 0. 54 nsc nsc * nsc Composition of carcass cuts (out of 100) Lean in leg Fat in leg Bone in leg 63. 32 ± 1. 47 15. 43 ± 0. 41 a 21. 25 ± 0. 49 62. 18 ± 1. 56 17. 34 ± 0. 47 ab 20. 34 ± 0. 55 59. 83 ± 1. 90 22. 67 ± 0. 43 b 20. 37 ± 0. 52 64. 55 ± 1. 25 13. 40 ± 0. 44 a 22. 05 ± 0. 53 60. 36 ± 1. 43 15. 43 ± 0. 47 a 24. 21 ± 0. 54 nsc * nsc Lean in foreleg Fat in foreleg Bone in foreleg 61. 34 ± 1. 71 13. 44 ± 0. 47 25. 21 ± 0. 54 61. 28 ± 1. 60 15. 88 ± 0. 50 22. 84 ± 0. 59 62. 84 ± 1. 57 13. 66 ± 0. 43 21. 86 ± 0. 60 62. 98 ± 1. 63 12. 43 ± 0. 52 24. 59 ± 0. 56 63. 49 ± 1. 67 13. 49 ± 0. 56 23. 02 ± 0. 51 nsc nsc Lean in back Fat in back Bone in back 48. 71 ± 0. 91 22. 64 ± 0. 52 28. 65 ± 0. 61 42. 58 ± 0. 87 25. 84 ± 0. 56 31. 58 ± 0. 66 44. 85 ± 0. 95 24. 74 ± 0. 49 30. 41 ± 0. 67 50. 26 ± 0. 91 19. 17 ± 0. 57 30. 57 ± 0. 59 47. 18 ± 0. 97 23. 59 ± 0. 59 29. 23 ± 0. 61 nsc nsc Lean in loin Fat in loin Bone in loin 52. 48 ± 0. 57 a 23. 40 ± 0. 47 22. 70 ± 0. 43 a 56. 91 ± 0. 61 b 24. 47 ± 0. 52 18. 09 ± 0. 41 ab 59. 47 ± 0. 63 b 23. 68 ± 0. 56 16. 84 ± 0. 39 b 53. 94 ± 0. 66 ab 24. 24 ± 0. 53 21. 82 ± 0. 41 a 54. 49 ± 0. 57 ab 23. 72 ± 0. 55 22. 44 ± 0. 45 a * nsc * Lean in remainder Fat in remainder Bone in remainder 47. 17 ± 0. 43 ab 18. 24 ± 0. 41 34. 80 ± 0. 71 a 51. 50 ± 0. 49 a 23. 28 ± 0. 40 25. 22 ± 0. 67 b 51. 60 ± 0. 56 a 20. 28 ± 0. 47 28. 11 ± 0. 73 b 48. 81 ± 0. 42 ab 20. 73 ± 0. 45 30. 46 ± 0. 76 ab 43. 67 ± 0. 40 b 21. 74 ± 0. 46 34. 59 ± 0. 69 a * nsc * 56. 17 ± 0. 86 17. 31 ± 0. 51 26. 52 ± 0. 47 56. 04 ± 0. 93 20. 59 ± 0. 52 23. 37 ± 0. 42 56. 02 ± 0. 89 20. 26 ± 0. 56 23. 89 ± 0. 45 55. 91 ± 0. 97 20. 23 ± 0. 55 23. 86 ± 0. 48 54. 14 ± 0. 95 18. 57 ± 0. 59 27. 29 ± 0. 49 nsc nsc Composition of whole carcass (out of 100) Lean in carcass Fat in carcass Bone in carcass

Meat Quality n n n p. H Water holding capacity (% liquid expelled) Cooking loss Tenderness Moisture Dry matter Ash content Protein Meat color (L*a*b* system: lightness, redness and yellowness) Fatty acid composition Cholesterol

Table: some meat quality characteristics of Bafra sheep breed (Yakan and Ünal, 2010) Items Kesim Ağırlığı (kg) P 30 (n=6) 35 (n=6) 40 (n=6) 45 (n=6) MLD 6, 506± 0, 08 6, 288± 0, 06 6, 376± 0, 04 6, 330± 0, 09 - MSM 6, 833± 0, 05 a 6, 673± 0, 04 b 6, 480± 0, 04 c 6, 686± 0, 04 b *** MLD 6, 100± 0, 07 6, 090± 0, 08 6, 065± 0, 07 5, 946± 0, 05 - MSM 6, 496± 0, 08 6, 271± 0, 06 6, 278± 0, 08 6, 300± 0, 07 - MLD 5, 525± 0, 03 a 5, 701± 0, 03 b 5, 715± 0, 06 b 5, 700± 0, 03 b ** MSM 5, 700± 0, 08 5, 828± 0, 04 5, 818± 0, 04 5, 871± 0, 05 - 24 h 9, 90± 1, 11 10, 53± 0, 85 10, 47± 1, 15 13, 07± 0, 99 - 48 h 10, 73± 1, 36 12, 77± 0, 63 11, 67± 1, 33 12, 67± 0, 84 - 72 h 10, 77± 1, 59 13, 57± 0, 95 11, 30± 0, 83 13, 80± 0, 38 - 24 h 30, 27± 1, 53 31, 54± 1, 14 28, 97± 1, 18 31, 99± 0, 46 - 48 h 31, 36± 1, 38 31, 40± 0, 98 27, 35± 1, 41 30, 22± 0, 91 - Tenderness (kg / cm 2) 3, 942± 0, 33 5, 038± 0, 70 4, 734± 0, 68 3, 627± 0, 80 - Moisture (%) 75, 08± 0, 38 74, 33± 0, 41 74, 66± 0, 35 74, 38± 0, 24 - Dry matter (%) 24, 92± 0, 38 25, 66± 0, 41 25, 33± 0, 35 25, 62± 0, 24 - Ash (%) 1, 41± 0, 09 1, 22± 0, 02 1, 32± 0, 07 1, 38± 0, 06 - Protein (%) 22, 51± 0, 33 a 24, 68± 0, 53 b 22, 97± 0, 47 a 22, 22± 0, 25 a ** Color L* a* b* 40, 21± 0, 81 17, 29± 0, 86 6, 40± 0, 32 40, 98± 0, 62 18, 80± 0, 35 7, 87± 0, 37 37, 91± 1, 70 19, 15± 0, 35 7, 20± 0, 37 39, 12± 0, 79 18, 23± 0, 74 6, 55± 0, 29 - p. H 0 h 45 min 24 h Water holding capacity (%) Cooking loss (%)

Table: Fatty acid composition (in percent) of Bafra sheep breed (Yakan and Ünal, 2010) Traits Slaughter weights (kg) P 30 35 40 45 C 10: 0 0, 598± 0, 13 0, 549± 0, 22 0, 314± 0, 02 0, 194± 0, 09 - C 12: 0 0, 539± 0, 07 a 0, 406± 0, 07 ab 0, 216± 0, 01 b 0, 327± 0, 07 ab * C 13: 0 0, 032± 0, 00 0, 020± 0, 00 0, 016± 0, 00 0, 071± 0, 13 - C 14: 0 5, 266± 0, 66 a 3, 745± 0, 40 b 3, 011± 0, 27 b 2, 285± 0, 67 b ** C 15: 0 0, 955± 0, 22 a 0, 471± 0, 08 ab 0, 574± 0, 08 ab 0, 396± 0, 09 b * C 16: 0 26, 484 ± 1, 73 26, 739± 1, 04 25, 717± 1, 17 24, 302± 0, 97 - C 16: 1 2, 607± 0, 62 1, 563± 0, 33 1, 956± 0, 26 1, 465± 0, 68 - C 17: 0 1, 630± 0, 62 1, 464± 0, 21 0, 988± 0, 27 0, 609± 0, 16 - C 18: 0 15, 614± 1, 19 15, 556± 0, 64 15, 062± 1, 89 16, 398± 1, 07 - C 18: 1 38, 526± 2, 72 41, 151± 1, 10 42, 577± 0, 76 43, 626± 2, 83 - C 18: 2 (ω6) 4, 949± 1, 65 6, 078± 1, 18 6, 138± 0, 80 7, 554± 0, 78 - C 18: 3 Δ 6, 9, 12 (ω6) 0, 090± 0, 01 a 0, 173± 0, 06 b 0, 067± 0, 02 a 0, 087± 0, 01 a * C 18: 3 Δ 9, 12, 15 (ω3) 0, 201± 0, 02 0, 215± 0, 04 0, 230± 0, 05 0, 239± 0, 02 - C 19: 0 0, 250± 0, 07 0, 137± 0, 02 0, 234± 0, 03 0, 107± 0, 05 - C 19: 1 0, 292± 0, 08 0, 278± 0, 12 0, 137± 0, 05 0, 141± 0, 01 - C 20: 0 0, 376± 0, 13 0, 156± 0, 06 0, 331± 0, 05 0, 413± 0, 10 - C 20: 1 0, 401± 0, 15 0, 055± 0, 00 0, 156± 0, 04 0, 208± 0, 01 - C 20: 2 (ω6) 0, 216± 0, 05 0, 163± 0, 03 0, 222± 0, 03 0, 254± 0, 01 - C 20: 3 Δ 8, 11, 14 (ω6) 0, 307± 0, 05 0, 415± 0, 03 0, 256± 0, 04 0, 387± 0, 27 - C 20: 3 Δ 11, 14, 17 (ω3) 0, 706± 0, 25 0, 367± 0, 11 0, 407± 0, 13 0, 424± 0, 25 - C 20: 4 (ω6) 1, 908± 0, 50 1, 325± 0, 22 1, 649± 0, 24 1, 520± 0, 21 - C 22: 0 0, 043± 0, 00 0, 046± 0, 00 0, 047± 0, 00 0, 052± 0, 01 - C 22: 5 (ω3) 0, 104± 0, 03 0, 121± 0, 02 0, 140± 0, 04 0, 138± 0, 08 - ω6: Omega 6, ω3: Omega 3

Table: Sums and ratio based on fatty acids of Bafra sheep breed (Yakan and Ünal, 2010) ΣSFA 51, 468± 2, 04 a 49, 067± 1, 27 ab 46, 264± 0, 72 b 45, 119± 1, 07 b * ΣMUFA 41, 695± 2, 22 42, 881± 1, 36 44, 765± 1, 00 45, 372± 2, 52 - ΣPUFA 6, 615± 1, 17 8, 005± 1, 15 8, 881± 0, 44 10, 592± 0, 63 - ΣTUFA / ΣSFA 0, 952± 0, 07 a 1, 044± 0, 05 ab 1, 116± 0, 03 b 1, 243± 0, 09 b * ΣPUFA / ΣSFA 0, 129± 0, 02 a 0, 165± 0, 02 ab 0, 191± 0, 01 ab 0, 234± 0, 01 b * Σω6 / Σω3 7, 466± 1, 11 a 11, 601± 1, 59 b 10, 783± 1, 75 ab 12, 281± 0, 81 b * Total cholesterol (mg/100 g) 59, 17± 10, 65 53, 80± 11, 02 55, 80± 10, 01 63, 00± 5, 38 - AI 1, 02± 0, 34 0, 83± 0, 06 0, 71± 0, 04 0, 61± 0, 09 - TI 1, 08± 0, 21 0, 99± 0, 04 0, 90± 0, 03 0, 87± 0, 08 - SFA saturated fatty acids, MUFA monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids, TUFA total unsaturated fatty acids, DFA desirable fatty acids (C 18: 0 + TUFA), Nutritive value C 18: 0 + C 18: 1/C 16: 0, n 6/n 3 C 18: 2 n 6 + C 18: 3 n 6 + C 20: 2 n 6 + C 20: 4 n 6/C 18: 3 n 3 + C 20: 3 n 3 + C 22: 6 n 3, AI atherogenic index, TI thrombogenic index