Reproduction in vertebrates Diversity of reproductive strategies Strategy

Reproduction in vertebrates Diversity of reproductive strategies

Strategy Description e. g. Advantage Disadvantage

INTERNAL FERTILISATION • The sperm cell then fuses with the egg cell inside the body of the female. Examples : terrestrial mammals, birds, and insects. Advantages : • Better chance that the sperm cell comes into contact with the egg • Protected from predators • Removed from harsh environments Disadvantages : • Fewer eggs are produced. • The animal must have an organ to insert the sperm cells.

Internal Fertilization Terrestrial vertebrates clasp each other tightly during copulation, the act by which the male deposits his sperm into the female’s reproductive tract. For the giant Galápagos tortoises pictured here, mating may take hours and is initiated by the male, who bangs his shell against that of the female to get her attention. These animals mate in the spring.

EXTERNAL FERTILISATION The sperm cell fuses with the egg cell outside the body of the female. The sperm cells are discharged (released) directly into water. Examples: are aquatic animals like frogs, sponges, jellyfish, worms and fish Advantages : • No additional energy is needed for parental care or formation of a protective layer. • No need for a male to have a special organ to insert the sperm into the females body. • Chances of fertilisation are enhanced by courtship display by fish. • Does not need much energy. Disadvantages : • Chances are very slim for a sperm cell to meet the egg of same species.

A mass of amphibian eggs, appearing as small black spots, is contained within a gelatinous mass while they incubate in a freshwater pond. Eggs deposited in this fashion receive little or no parental protection and will soon hatch into small, wriggling tadpoles.

OVIPARITY (egg-laying) • Refers to egg laying animals • Eggs are protected by a hard shell , while others are protected by a jelly like layer after fertilisation. • Development does not occur inside the body • The development of an organism is completed inside the egg after it has been laid • Examples: Frogs, insects, birds, and marine mammals • Advantages : • Eggs and sperm cells are produced in large numbers to increase chances of survival to adulthood. • Much energy is invested for parental care. • Parental care ensures survival to adulthood. • Disadvantages: • Mortality rate is high.

VIVIPARITY (Live birth) • Refers to animals that give birth to live young ones. • There is a connection between the developing foetus and the mother. • Examples : Human beings, whales and kangaroos. • Advantages : • The temperature is regulated by the mother • The mother provides nutrition for the young one (umbilical cord) • Mortality rate is lower • Disadvantages : • Fewer off springs are produced. • More energy is used to provide parental care

OVOVIVIPARITY • Refers to animals that do not lay eggs , but keep them in their bodies until they hatch. • The body temperature is necessary for them to hatch. • There is no connection between the embryo and the mother (no placenta) • Examples : Sharks , lizards cockroaches and some snakes • ADVANTAGES : • The young one is protected from cold and predators to ensure survival • The young one can develop to a fairly large size before birth • DISADVANTAGES: • Fewer offspring, • More parental care need

Common Lizard The common lizard is the most northerly occurring lizard and can be found within the Arctic circle. It does not lay eggs but gives birth to fully formed young

• This is the egg laid by reptiles, birds and some mammals. • The embryo develops inside the amnion and is protected by many membranes and hard shell. • Amniotic fluid protects the embryo from drying out. • It feeds from the yolk. • The allantois removes metabolic wastes. • The chorion supplies oxygen, food and water. • Advantages : • They are resistant to dryness • Oviporous mammals can move to environments • Is protected by a number of membranes. • This complicated structure can allow animals to evolve into bigger forms, and better protect themselves. AMNIOTIC EGG

Amniotic Egg A critical evolutionary development for terrestrial animals is the reptilian amniotic egg, now also characteristic of birds and some mammals. The developing embryo, protected from drying out, can survive out of water and in a variety of habitats. The yolk provides it with food, and the albumen supplies water and nutrients. Wastes are released to the allantois, an extension of the embryonic gut. Oxygen diffuses easily through the thin outer shell of the egg; its passage to the embryo is regulated by the chorion.

HOMEWORK: Draw, label and annotate a diagram of the amniotic egg.

TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTS PRECOCIAL DEVELOPMENT • Young ones are relatively mature and are able to move around after they are born or hatch. • Their eyes are open, and have good eyesight • They can go out to search food for themselves. • Have strong skeleton, and their body is either covered by feathers (birds) or hair(mammals). • Birds need their parents to keep them warm, but this lasts for a short period. • Mammals can regulate their body temperature. • Examples : ground birds, cattle, sheep, antelopes, buffalo, elephants, hippos and giraffe.

Snake Giving Birth Most snakes hatch from eggs that have been laid outside the mother's body, but among some snake species, females bear live young, as shown here. This method of reproduction may be beneficial to snakes that live in cold climates, because the pregnant female can bask in the sun to keep her developing offspring warm.

ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT • Young ones are unable to move after birth and are helpless. • They do not have feathers (birds) and blind. • They need to be fed and kept warm. Helpless at Birth Although this two-month-old parma wallaby joey successfully completed a blind journey from its mother’s birth canal to her pouch without help, it would not survive without her.

PARENTAL CARE • Refers to looking after young ones through feeding, keeping them warm, protecting them from the predators. • Such animals give rise to few offspring, but have a greater survival rate

Pg 74 Unit questions no 1 only