Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement Theory Ryan and Smith started

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory �Ryan and Smith started to examine the applicability of behavioural approach on motivation. �Behaviourism can provide a more parsimonious methodological framework for studying the cause and effect relationship at work. �The frequency of response can be increased or decreased by changing the schedule on which a reinforcer is presented.

Reinforcement Theory �Behavior �Stimulus �Response �Reward �Contingent reward �Continuous/intermittent rewards

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Schedule of reinforcement—pattern of reinforcing a behavior � Principal reinforcement schedules vary along two dimensions: Consistency of administering reinforcement • Fixed—reinforcers are provided on a regular basis • Variable—reinforcers are provided on an irregular basis

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Basis of administering reinforcement • Ratio—animal is reinforced based on the number of responses • Interval—animal is reinforced based on the amount of time elapsed since last reinforcer

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT � Four major reinforcement schedules Fixed ratio (FR) schedule We give a rat a pellet after it presses the lever in a Skinner box fifteen times. Fixed interval (FI) schedule We give a rat a pellet in 10 seconds A worker in the factory gets paid the same time every Friday afternoon

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Variable ratio (VR) schedule Reinforcement is given after a precise number of responses on average Variable interval (VI) schedule We provide reinforcement for producing the response after an average time interval, with actual interval varying randomly.

Four Major Reinforcement Schedules. The four major reinforcement schedules are (a) fixed ratio, (b) fixed interval, (c) variable ratio, and (d) variable interval.

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Skinner discovered that different reinforcement schedules yield distinctive patterns of responding

Typical Response Patterns for the Four Reinforcement Schedules. Note the “scalloped” pattern in (b), the fixed interval response pattern. The subject decreases the reinforced behavior immediately after receiving a reinforcer, then increases the behavior in anticipation of reinforcement as the time for reinforcement approaches.

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT Ratio schedules yield higher rates of responding than do interval schedules. Variable schedules tend to yield more consistent rates of responding than do fixed schedules. Fixed interval schedules are associated with a “scalloped” pattern of responding. Variable ratio schedules generally yield the highest rates of responding of all.

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT � Two other features of reinforcers: Fixed interval schedules are associated with a scalloped pattern of responding. • The animal waits to increase its response rate until the interval is almost up; it anticipates the response. Variable ratio schedules usually yield the highest rates of response (e. g. , slot machines at casinos).

If we want this dog to retain this basketball twirling trick in the future, should we reinforce it each time if performs the trick, or only some of the time?

Answer: Only some of the time

Imagine that this football player received a salary bonus for every five touchdowns he scored. What reinforcement schedule would he be on?

Answer: Fixed ratio

Reinforcement Theory �When tasks are simple, RT can be applied �Dulany (1968) showed that even the simplest forms of learning may not occur if people are conscious of what is required. �Ethics, people do not according to their free will and their choice

REINFORCEMENT THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS �Rodents are harmful forest product companies. �Trappers are bored and they were complaining about everything �SOLUTION �The trappers were randomly assigned to one of two groups �GROUP A – paid on continuous schedule of reinforcement. Each trapper received a 1 $ bonus over and above his hourly rate for each rodent he trapped. After 4 weeks the trappers were switched to variable ratio schedule in which they received 4$ contingent upon trapping a rodent and correctly guessing the color of one or four marbles prior to drawing it from a bag held by the supervisor. �GROUP B the order of the schedules were reversed. Not only the employee productivity increased but also the complaints were stopped.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS �Luthans and Kreitner (1975) published a book on ways to use behavior modification methodology in organizational settings. �Feeney (1973) feedback – in the from of recognition, performance increased performance. �Dulany (1968) showed that even the simplest forms of learning may not occur if people are conscious of what is required.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS �People are influenced by environment but causal effect is not deterministic. The effects of environment depend on what people attend to and what conclusions they draw from experiences they have and the situations they encounter.

Application of Reinforcement Theory at Work �Yukl, Wexley, and Seymore (1972) �Performance of the employees were higher when they were paid on a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement rather on continuous one. �On the contrary to the instrumentality beliefs of expectancy theory

Reinforcement Theory �When tasks are simple, RT can be applied �Ethics, people do not according to their free will and their choice

Goal-Setting Theory �The 1960 s article published by Dr. Edwin Locke's on "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives", �clear goals and appropriate feedback motivates employees. �when employees worked towards a goal, it spearheaded a major source of motivation within the employees to actually reach the goal. As a result, the final performance of the employee improves. Locke's study also threw light on the relationship between goals and performance. According to his study, specific, challenging and achievable goals conduced to better results and performance as compared to vague, randomly set or easy to do goals.

Goal-Setting Theory �Dr Gary Latham also started conducting research in the same field and in 1990, both Locke and Latham published their combined work in a book, which reinforced the need to specify goals correctly in order to achieve better results. �Specific high goals lead to higher performance than no goals or even an abstract goal such as «do your best»

Goal-Setting Theory �Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timetargeted (S. M. A. R. T ) goals.

SMART - SPECIFIC GOALS � As you create your goals, make sure that they are very specific. One key to being specific when you write your goals is to use strong, decisive, definitive words. Do not use words that are wishy-washy or soft. They leave you room to not go through with them, and that is not what you are looking for. You are looking for results!! � For example, the following non-specific goals: � "I would like to graduate…" � "I might join a club…" � "I may make the Dean's List…" � You want: � "I will graduate in July of 2011. . . " � "I'm joining a health club today right after class. . . " � " I will make the Dean's List next quarter. . . "

SMART -Measurable �A goal is measureable when it is easy to tell whether you have achieved it. For example, a student will say, "I want to be healthy. " This is certainly a worthy goal, but how does the student measure progress towards the goal and how does the student know if it has been achieved? �A more specific and measureable goal would say, "By the end of the 11 week quarter, I will be able to run 3 miles in under one hour. " �At the end of the 11 weeks, you will be able to measure this goal in a concrete manner. You will either be able to run 3 miles or not.

SMART Attainable �A goal needs to be something that you can actually attain. This is directly related to creating goals that are specific and measureable. �For example, many times people will say that their goal is to "be happy. " That is certainly a worthy notion, but how does one attain this goal and how do you know whether you have attained it? Happiness is a completely subjective term that has varying meanings depending on the person, the time, and the situation. �Students will often create the goal of "being smarter. " Once again, how does the student tell whether they are actually smarter? Students would be much better off setting a goal that involved making the Dean's List, a very attainable

SMART - Realistic �A major issue that students face when it comes to goal setting is that they have trouble choosing goals that are useful and realistic. Have you ever set a goal and failed to achieve it because it was just not realistic? �For example, a common example of unrealistic goals are weight loss goals. How many times have you heard someone set a goal like the following? �"I would like to lose 20 pounds in the two weeks before my high school reunion. " �It is safe to say that losing so much weight so quickly is not a realistic goal for anyone.

SMART Timely �All goals need a deadline. Goals without a deadline are not specific enough and need to be restated. For short-term goals, your deadlines may come right from the course calendar or syllabus. If the professor is giving a quiz, assignment, or discussion board post every week, then you know the timeframe in which you need to have your studying done. �Sometimes you may need to take a large assignment, such as a course-long project, and break it down into a series of smaller goals with definitive due dates.

Goal-Setting Theory

Goal-Setting Theory �Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors: �Goals are made open, known and broadcasted. �Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated. �Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and vision.

Goal-Setting Theory �Goals Performance Goal importance Goal commitment Feedback Self efficacy Task complexity

Goal-Setting Theory �Self-efficacy- Iindividual's self-confidence and faith that he has potential of performing the task. �Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by the individual when they face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of selfefficiency, less will be the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while meeting challenges.

Goal-Setting Theory �Advantages of Goal Setting Theory �Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete work quickly and effectively. �Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also through increasing and improving the feedback quality.

Goal-Setting Theory �Limitations of Goal Setting Theory �At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift. �Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour. �If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then the goalsetting can fail and lead to undermining of performance.

Goal-Setting Theory �Most well-supported theory �Boundary conditions �Number of goals �Complex tasks �Distal versus proximal goals