Reinforcement theory Reinforcement The administration of a consequence

Reinforcement theory Ø Reinforcement. – The administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. – Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual’s behavior.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory Ø Law of effect. – Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences of behavior. – Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod). – The systematic reinforcement of desirable work behavior and the nonreinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior. – Uses four basic strategies: • • Positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement. Punishment. Extinction.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Positive reinforcement. – The administration of positive consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in similar settings. – Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers. – A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behavior improves.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Principles governing reinforcement. – Law of contingent reinforcement. • The reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited. – Law of immediate reinforcement. • The reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Scheduling reinforcement. – Continuous reinforcement. • Administers a reward each time the desired behavior occurs. – Intermittent reinforcement. • Rewards behavior periodically — either on the basis of time elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Negative reinforcement. – Also known as avoidance. – The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in a similar setting.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Punishment. – The administration of negative consequences or the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar settings.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Implications of using punishment. – Punishing poor performance enhances performance without affecting satisfaction. – Arbitrary punishment leads to poor performance and low satisfaction. – Punishment may be offset by positive reinforcement from another source.

Reinforcement Theory Ø Extinction. – The withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a given behavior. – The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not exhibited. – The behavior will reappear if it is reinforced again.

Reinforcement Theory

Equity Theory and Social Comparison Workers are more likely to be motivated when they have ratios equal to those of the comparison person or persons. Outcomes of Individual Inputs of Individual versus Outcomes of Others Inputs of Others When the ratio is not right, the worker might attempt to alter the outcome, input, or just leave.

Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations INPUTS OUTCOMES v Age v Challenging job assignments v Attendance v Fringe benefits v Interpersonal skills, communication skills v Job perquisites (parking space or office location) v Job effort (long hours) v Job security v Level of education v Monotony v Past experience v Promotion

Examples of Inputs and Outcomes in Organizations (continued) INPUTS OUTCOMES v Performance v Recognition v Personal appearance v Responsibility v Seniority v Salary v Social status v Seniority benefits v Technical skills v Status symbols v Training v Working conditions

Equity Theory Person Comparison other Equity Outcomes = Inputs Outcomes Inputs Negative Inequity Outcomes < Inputs Outcomes Inputs Positive Inequity Outcomes > Inputs Outcomes Inputs

Inequity as a Motivational Process Individual perceives inequity Individual experiences tension Individual wants to reduce tension Individual takes action

Ways to Reduce Tension Produced by Inequity q Actually change inputs q Actually change outcomes q Mentally distort inputs or outcomes q Leave organization or transfer to another department q Change the reference group q Distort others’ inputs or outcomes

Decision-making Using Equity Theory § Procedural Justice ü Emphasizes processes used to reach a decision ü Focuses on fairness of rules and procedures ü Fair procedures lead to high job satisfaction and performance § Organizational Citizenship Behavior ü Employees going beyond what is formally required by the job ü Focus on fair exchanges among employees

Organizational Uses of the Equity Model Ø Treat employees fairly Ø People make decisions concerning equity after comparing themselves with others Ø Procedural justice influences perceptions of organizational fairness

Expectancy Theory of Motivation • People strive for worthwhile outcomes. • Expectancy is a subjective hunch ( 0 to 1) about attaining performance. • Instrumentality is a subjective hunch (0 to 1) that rewards will follow performance. • Valence (- 100 to +100) is the importance of outcome. • Motivation = E x I x V. (A zero for any value will eliminate motivation. )

Basic Assumptions of the Expectancy Model Ø A combination of forces determines behavior Ø Individuals decide their own behaviors in organizations Ø Different individuals have different needs and goals, and want different rewards Ø Individuals decide among alternatives based on their perceptions

Key Variables in the Expectancy Model q First-level outcomes—results of doing the job q Second-level outcomes—positive or negative events produced by first-level outcomes q Expectancy—effort-performance belief q Instrumentality—relationship between firstlevel and second-level outcomes. q Valence—preference for a second-level outcome

Expectancy Model in Action First-level Outcomes Second-level Outcomes Self-confidence Effort Attend class Study Take notes Prepare for exams Performance: Grade in Class A B C D F Self-esteem Personal happiness Overall GPA Expectancy Approval of others Instrumentality Respect of others

Expectancy Theory

Potential Problems of the Expectancy Model Ø Accurate measurement of effort is difficult Ø Importance of second-level outcomes hard to determine Ø Assumption that motivation is a conscious choice process Ø Works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution (e. g. Canada, U. S. A. , U. K. ) rather than fatalism (e. g. Brazil, Iran, China)

Organizational Uses of the Expectancy Model ü Determine outcomes that each employee values ü Define measurable performance levels ü Ensure that desired performance can be attained ü Link desired performance and employees’ outcomes ü Remember that motivation is based on perceptions ü Make sure changes in rewards are linked to employee’s effort

Goal Theory 1. Specific goals are better than generalized goals. 2. Performance increases with goal difficulty. 3. Worker must accept the goal. 4. Goals are more effective when used to evaluate performance.

Goal Theory, continued 5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards. 6. Deadlines improve goal effectiveness. 7. Learning goal orientation better than performance goal orientation. 8. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

Important Goal Characteristics SPECIFIC GOALS DIFFICULT GOALS GOAL ACCEPTANCE MOTIVATION FEEDBACK ON PROGRESS COMPETITION PARTICIPATION IN GOAL SETTING GOAL COMMITMENT