Reconstruction 1865 1877 Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad
- Slides: 94
Reconstruction 1865 -1877 Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad
Reconstruction • “…Readjustment between the North and South and of economic, social, and political relationships within the South” (Donald, Baker, Holt 2001). – Events in the south are at the heart of the drama of the time – 3/5 of Americans live in the north
Postwar North • Sacrifices not to be wasted • Republicans and social reformers: government worked – Federal government can improve the country • End racial discrimination • Increase rights for African Americans – Enfranchisement not seen until 1868 in Iowa, Minnesota • Racism still pervasive • Tired of war and wanted to get back to normal
Disbanding the Union Army • End of 1865: Military shrank from over 1 million to 152, 000 – 38, 000 sent to Indian frontier • Restricted federal government’s ability to enforce Reconstruction • Men wanted jobs
New Economy • Immigration increased after war ended • Women entered workforce to support families – Their men were killed or maimed – Widows received funds from federal government • War slowed northern industrial development – Diversion of raw materials to war materiel
South in Ruins • Most battles fought in southern states • Economy ruined – Plantations destroyed – Slavery ended – Infrastructure ruined • Wounded soldiers • Refugees – Civilians, former slaves – Moved into cities • Law and order kept by Union Armies
“With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. ”
Lincoln Plans Reconstruction • Lincoln favored lenient Reconstruction Policy – Felt Southern Unionists (former Whigs) could lead new, loyal south • December, 1863 – Offered amnesty to whites except high CSA officials • Had to pledge oath of loyalty to federal government • Had to accept elimination of slavery – Once 10% of state took loyalty oath, they could set up a state government – Extended suffrage to educated, property owning blacks who served in the Union army – Left political rights of blacks up to the individual states
Lincoln’s Plan • Confederacy rejoin the Union – “With malice towards none…” • 10% of state swear loyalty oath • State government ends slavery • Amnesty former Confederates except for government leaders and top military officers – Amnesty: group pardon
Congress’s First Plan • Radical Republicans were outraged by Lincoln’s plan • Refused to admit the representatives from the three “reconstructed” states to Congress • 50% of voters needed to sign loyalty oath • All volunteer military barred from voting – Goal was to keep former power holders (secessionists) from regaining power • Never signed by Lincoln, never became law
Wade-Davis Bill • July 1864: – President appointed provisional government for each conquered state – Majority of white males had to swear an oath to the Union in order for governor to call a state constitutional conventional • Delegates could only be elected by voters who did not fight against the union • New state constitutions had to outlaw slavery, disfranchise Confederate civil and military leaders, pay debt accumulated during the war • Left political rights of black up to the individual states – Bill was passed by Congress, vetoed by Lincoln • Enraged Republicans inspired Lincoln to revise his Plan
Freedmen’s Bureau… • • Freedmen: enslaved people freed by the war Bureau created by Congress in March, 1865 Provide emergency relief to all displaced by war Provide Education – – Teach reading and writing Some African Americans started their own schools Teachers were northern black and white women First organized system of education in most of the south
• An agency of the army – Directed by General Oliver O. Howard – Distributed food to former slaves – Established schools • Staffed by missionaries, teachers sent by Freedman’s Aid Societies and other church and private groups – Tried to get blacks and poor whites land on which to settle – Intended to operate for 1 year
Goal of the Freedmen’s Bureau • Defended new freedom – Helped freed slaves find jobs – Resolved disputes between poor blacks and rich whites • Stopped people from cheating the still-illiterate freedman • Set up own courts
White Southerners • Wanted to be free of northern control and the federal government – Tried restoring antebellum society • Wanted to preserve local, regional autonomy, white supremacy • Federal troops stayed in the south to preserve order, protect freedmen
Lincoln Assassinated • April 14, 1865: Lincoln shot at Ford’s theater by John Wilkes Booth – Booth was shot and killed April 26 – 8 others convicted by military tribunal, 4 hanged – Northerners raged by perceived southern conspiracy • Feeling exploited by Radical Republicans to push for acceptance of their Reconstruction plans
Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction • Tennessee born, Democrat until 1864 – Bitter towards Confederacy • Had his own “Restoration Plan” implemented in the summer of 1865 – Offered amnesty to southerners who took the oath of allegiance • Excluded high ranking Confederates – Qualified voters to elect delegates to state constitutional conventions – States revolve their ordinance of secession – States ratify the Thirteenth Amendment – Pay state war debts
Land Means Freedom • June, 1865: Freedman’s Bureau settled 10, 000 black families on their own land – Most on abandoned plantations in areas occupied by Union armies – By the end of 1865, owners began to return and demand their property back • Had support of Johnson and government returned their land
Tenement Farming • 80% of blacks did not own land worked for others • 25% worked for wages • Most tenement farmers on white-owned land – Worked a plot of land, paid rent in money or for a share of crop “sharecropping” – Had physical independence, “own” piece of land
Congress • Republicans held the majority • Divided on how to approach Reconstruction – Conservatives: South should accept abolition of slavery • Supported some concessions from the south regarding black rights – Radicals led by Thaddeus Stevens of PA and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts • Disfranchise southern whites • Protect black civil rights • Confiscate property of wealthy white southerners – Distribute land to freedmen
Congress Immovable • By the end of 1865, all seceded states had new governments and were waiting for Congressional approval – Radical Republicans would not recognize new governments – Some states sent former high ranking Confederates to Congress • Former CSA vice president Andrew H. Stevens was sent • Radical Reconstruction began in December, 1865 – 1865: Joint Committee on Reconstruction formed
Black Codes • Enacted in Southern states in 1865 – Designed to give whites substantial control over former slaves – Authorized local officials to apprehend unemployed blacks, fine for vagrancy, hire out to private employers to satisfy their fine – Forbade backs to own farms or take jobs other than plantation workers or domestic servants – Congress passed acts extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau and widened its powers
Ku Klux Klan • Secret society • Founded in 1866 • Membership increased with enfranchisement of African Americans – Used intimidation to prevent voting
Violence in the South • May, 1866: Memphis, Tennessee – White mobs killed over 40 African Americans – Burned homes, churches, schools • July, 1866: New Orleans – Mob attacked convention supporting African American voting rights
Crop-Lien System • Credit system depended on local country stores – Owned by planters, independent merchants – All landowners and tenants depended on stores for food, clothing, seed, tools – Farmers did not have steady cash and depended on credit from stores (merchants) for purchases – Interest rates as high as 50 -60% • Crops given as collateral (lien) for loans – A number of bad years resulted in inescapable debt • Many depended on cash crops, especially cotton – Relentless farming exhausted soil • Women worked as domestic servants out of economic necessity – Took in laundry or helped husbands in their fields
Civil Rights Act of 1866 • Passed by Congress in April, 1866 • Citizen ship to all persons born in US – Except Native Americans – Declared blacks citizens of the US • Government had power to intervene in state affairs – To protect citizens’ rights
Power Grows • Race riots targeting blacks occur in southern cities – Gave Radical Republicans more power in Congress • After 1866 elections, received overwhelming majority in Congress – Able to override all vetoes with control of both houses • Tennessee was readmitted, • Congress rejected state government framed under Lincoln and Johnson plans – Congress formed 10 states that did not ratify the 14 th into 5 military districts
Military Reconstruction Act • March, 1867 • Divided former Confederacy into 5 military districts • Military officers supervised voter registration
Military Districts • A military commander governed each district and had orders to register qualified voters – All adult black males and white males who did not fight in the rebellion – Voters could elect conventions to form new constitutions • Had to include provisions for black suffrage • Once constitutions ratified, state governments could be elected – Congress had to approve state governments • Once approved, state had to ratify 14 th Amendment
Fourteenth Amendment • Offered the first Constitutional definition of American Citizenship – Everyone born in the US is a naturalized citizen • Entitled to all privileges and immunities guaranteed by the Constitution • Included equal protection of laws • No state can deprive any person of life, liberty, or property “without due process of the law. ” • Imposed penalties on states that denied suffrage to any adult male inhabitants • Ratified in 1868
Trouble with the Courts • Supreme Court declared military tribunals unconstitutional where civil courts were functioning – Threatened military-district governments set up by the Radicals • Radicals proposed bills requiring 2/3 of justices to support decisions overruling a law of Congress – Denied the Court jurisdiction in Reconstruction cases
Handcuffing Johnson • Congress tried to keep Johnson powerless to stop them from passing Radical Reconstruction – Tenure of Office Act: the president could not remove civil officials (cabinet members) without consent of the Senate • Protected Secretary of War Edwin Stanton who was cooperating with the Radicals – Command of Army Act: the president could not issue military orders except through the Commanding General of the Army (U. S. Grant) • Could not be relieved under the Tenure of Office Act
Impeachment • Johnson vetoed Freedman’s Bureau extension and Civil Rights Act – Overridden by Congress • Radicals tried to impeach Johnson, April-May 1868 – Impeach: charge with “high crimes and misdemeanors” in office – Johnson dismissed Stanton and violated Tenure of Office Act – House voted to impeach Johnson and sent case to Senate for trial – Senate voted 35 to 19 that Johnson guilty: 1 vote short
• Secretary of State William H. Seward purchased Alaska from Russia for $7. 2 million ($109 million today) – “Seward’s Folly” since many thought Alaska was an icy wasteland – Also annexed Hawaii • 1870 s: Gold strikes made – Thousands of prospectors went to Alaska
Native American’s Troubles Continue • Two large land reserves (Nebraska, Kansas) set aside by Congress – Any who refused to relocate “would be treated as friendly or hostile as circumstances justify” • Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 – Signed by 68, 000 Kiowa, Comanche, Cheyenne, Arapaho – Pledged to live in present-day Oklahoma
The Grange • Formed by Midwestern farmers in 1867 • First major farmer’s political movement – 1. 5 million members by 1870 s – Offered information, emotional support, fellowship – “buy less, produce more” made farmers self sustaining – Negotiated discounts and “cash only” cooperative stores to cut out middlemen
William H. Sylvis • Philadelphia labor leader • Formed the National Labor Union (NLU) in Baltimore – 8 -hour day movement – immigration restriction • especially of Chinese – women workers – black workers’ unions
Education in the South • One of the most important accomplishments of Reconstruction – Improved for blacks and whites – Reform came from outside groups • Freedman’s Bureau, northern private philanthropic groups, northern teachers, African Americans – Education opposed by whites fearing equality between races
Chinese and the Railroad • More Chinese recruited for strong work ethic – Hired for difficult and dangerous tasks – Paid less than Irish counterparts • Labor recruiters scouring California • Advertised work in China • 12, 000 Chinese hired in 1868 – 80% of the Central Pacific workforce.
Making the Pass • July 1868: How to get the Pacific Railroad through the mountains? • Theodore Judah: – Engineer: found the pass through Sierra Nevada – Donner Pass
Workers Seek Improvements • Irish laborers agitated over wages, replaced by Chinese on Central Pacific • June 25, 1867: Chinese workers strike for better wages, shorter hours – Crocker and Strobridge cut off food, supplies, and communication to the camps. – Men will back to work at the same wage • May, 1869: Unpaid tie workers block the lines
Results of Election of 1868 • Fourteenth Amendment Ratified • Republicans controlled Congress (3: 1) • Congressional Radicals offered to readmit to the Union any state that ratified the 14 th Amendment – Only Tennessee did so – Amendment did not have ¾ approval of states for ratification
Grant Elected President in 1868 • Had no political experience – Most cabinet members inept • Blatant use of spoils system • Relied on party leaders – Continued to support Radical Reconstruction • most in the north ceased to do so – Northerners disillusioned – Administration seemed inept
1870 • 7 of 10 former Confederate states fulfilled conditions and ratified the 14 th Amendment – Arkansas, – North and South Carolina – Louisiana – Alabama – Georgia – Florida
No Buffalo, onto Reservations • • William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody By 1868, killed 4, 300 bison himself in 1 year Fed the builders of the Union Pacific Railroad Fort Laramie Treaty signed by Sioux representing 54, 000 Plains Indians – Moved onto reservations in new South Dakota in return for money and provisions – Not all Sioux signed treaty
Relocation Resistance • August, 1868: many still resisted relocation – Cheyenne, Arapaho, Sioux raided frontier settlements in Kansas • Fall: Custer’s raiding party attacked villages in retaliation – Attacked a village at night – Killed 100 warriors – Captured others and moved to reservations
Meeting of the Lines • Union Pacific met Central Pacific at Promontory, Utah • Stanford: drove final spike into the last rail with silver mallet
May 10, 1869 • Union Pacific from Omaha met the Central Pacific from Sacramento at Promontory Point, Utah • Transcontinental railroad sped western development – Moved men and supplies to armies fighting the Indians – Hunters accessed bison ranges easier, slaughtered more – More settlers moved westward faster – Cattle and grain supplies shipped east easier
Fifteenth Amendment • Republicans wanted to expand protect rights of blacks – Wanted their votes – Democrats would block, costing votes • “The right of citizens…to vote shall not be denied…by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. ” • Passed in February 1869, ratified March 1870 • Many northerners felt campaign on behalf of blacks was over • Constitutionally guaranteed voting rights – Nationally: not just in the south • Endorsed by Grant
Returning to the Union • Virginia, Texas readmitted to Union • Required to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment after 1868 – Forbade state and federal governments from denying suffrage to any citizen on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude
Scalawags and Carpetbaggers • Southern white Republicans • Scalawags (worthless livestock): • Former Whigs uncomfortable in Democratic party • Farmers who lived in areas without slavery • Hoped party’s internal improvements would help their economic isolation • Carpetbaggers were whites from the north, usually veterans, who saw the south as having more promising economic opportunities than the north • Carried possessions in bags made of old carpets • Hopeful planters, businessmen, professionals
Viewed as intruders seeking to exploit the south.
Republicans in the South • Most were freedmen with no political experience • Some served as delegates to constitutional conventions, held public offices • Starting in 1869 (until 1901) 20 blacks served in US House of Representatives, 2 in the Senate – Always disproportionate to population
Board of Indian Commissioners • Christian reformers urged Congress to establish Board • Reform abuses on reservations by Indian Agents • Indians left reservations in large numbers • Some whites purchased lands from those who stayed
Knights of Labor • William Sylvis dies, NLU’s influence fades • Knights of Labor founded by Uriah H. Stephens in 1869 – Welcomed all wage earners – Demanded equal pay for women, end of child labor, convict labor – Demanded cooperative employer-employee ownership of factories, mines, other businesses – Progressive tax on all earnings • Higher earnings mean higher taxes – No federal income taxes existed
Home on the Range • Open range cattle ranching had been increasing since 1860 s – Chisholm Trail: from Kansas and Abilene, Texas – William H. “Billy the Kid” Bonney was a famous cattle thief • Bison slaughtered for hides – Killed by railroad passengers for fun • Farmers and cattlemen occupied former grazing ground
More Religion-Inspired Reform • 13% of all women worked outside the home – Cooks, maids, cleaning ladies, laundresses • Social Gospel Movement – Protestant movement – Wealthy must aid poor – Fought social injustice • Middle-class activists wanted Americans to have knowledge in order to be effective labor and citizens – Pushed for more years spent in schools – Many working class families withdrew children from schools to earn money • Farmer’s Alliance: farm protest movement begun in Texas
Education Spreads • Mississippi readmitted to Union • 4, 000 schools in place for freedmen by 1870 with 9, 000 teachers teaching 200, 000 students • Reconstruction government began organizing public school systems in – 1876: 40% of African American children attended school
Barriers and Hurdles • Whites were a majority in the upper south – Able to vote Republicans out of office – Decline of Republican majority in south began – Planters refused to rent land, storekeepers refused credit, and employers refused to hire Republican Blacks
Intimidation, Violence • Used against Republican voters (blacks, scalawags) – Secret societies • KKK, Knights of White Camellia – Used terrorism to frighten or physically bar blacks from voting – Paramilitary organizations • Red Shirts, White Leagues • “policed” elections • Worked to force all white males to join the Democratic party – Tried to exclude all blacks from meaningful party activities
Enforcement Acts • Republican Congress responded to repression with Enforcement Acts of 1870, 1871 (AKA Ku Klux Klan Acts) – Prohibited states from discriminating against voters on the basis of race – Gave national government authority to supersede state courts and prosecute crimes by individuals under federal law • First time the government asserted this right – Authorized the president to use federal troops to protect civil rights • Grant used this in 1871 in 9 counties in South Carolina – Acts discouraged Klan violence
Diplomacy • Grant’s Secretary of State Hamilton Fish resolved neutrality violation controversy with England regarding the ships built by England for the Confederacy – Treaty of Washington, 1871 Britain expressed regret for escape of Alabama from England • Congress abolished treaty-making and replaced treaties with executive orders and acts of Congress
Republicans in Election of 1872 • Liberal Republicans opposed “Grantism” • Left the Republican party – Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greely editor, publisher of the New York Tribune – Promised pardon for all former Confederates • Had reluctant support of Democrats who hoped to defeat Grant • Grant won substantial victory
Panic of 1873 • Wall Street crashed after Jay Cooke and Company failed after investing too heavily in railroad building • Depression lasted 4 years • Undermined support for Reconstruction • Wheat Boom began in Dakota territory and would last into 1880 s
Native Americans Resist • Chief Red Cloud’s Oglala band Chief Spotted Tail’s Brule remained on traditional lands, resisting reservations – Raided encroaching white settlements in Nebraska and Wyoming – Also led by Sitting Bull, Sioux chief and holy man
White Settlement Increases • Timber Culture Act – Gave homesteaders another 160 acres if they planted trees on 40 acres of land • Grasshopper infestations – hit Midwest and ate ½ of wheat crop – continued through 1877
1874 • Barbed wire was patented an allowed farmers to keep livestock out of their crops – Interrupted cattle drives • Sherman sent Custer into Black Hills of South Dakota on 1874
Elections of 1874 • Democrats won control of the House of Representatives for the first time since 1861 • Grant reduced use of military force to prop up Republican regimes in the South
Red River War • U. S. Regular Army vs. Southern Plains Indians • Kiowa, Comanche, Cheyenne raided Texas panhandle • Army retaliated by slaughtering hundred Cheyenne fugitive in Kansas – 74 “ringleaders” sent to reservations in Florida – Ended Native American independence on the Southern Plains
Specie Redemption Act • Passed by Republicans • After January 1, 1879 – Greenback dollars would be redeemed by the government – Replaced with new notes backed by gold
• Army commanders were encouraging slaughters of bison to undermine Indian resistance – 1872 -1875: 9 million buffalo were killed • Skin taken, carcasses left to rot (pics) • Native American dependence on animal gone • Few thousand bison left on Plains (how many today? )
Civil Rights Act of 1875 • Introduced by Senate Republicans in 1874 – Charles Sumner – Required integration • Railroads, steamships, streetcars • Schools • Theaters, hotels, restaurants – Not passed by House until integration of schools removed • Symbolically important – Most freeman could not afford luxuries – “…empty declaration of virtue…. ”
Custer’s Last Stand • June, 1876: 600 troops of the Seventh Cavalry to Little Big Horn River in present day Montana – Hub of Indian resistance • June 25: Custer underestimated Native American force under Sitting Bull – Sitting Bull had a large company of Cheyenne, Sioux – Wiped out Custer’s force of 261 men – Defeat made US Army more determined • Attacked Sioux bands for 5 years
Education in 1876 • More than ½ the white, 40% of black children attending schools in the south – All schools racially segregated • Several black academies began offering more advanced education – Grew into important black colleges and universities • Tuskegee University
Reconstruction is Dying • After the election of 1876, only three southern states were still under Republican control – South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida – Democrats used terrorist tactics during election to claim the 3 states – Republicans also claimed victory due to presence of federal troops • If the troops left, Democrats won elections
Beginning of the End • Grant’s Administration full of scandal and controversy – 1875 “Whisky Ring” • Government officials cheating on taxes – People in the North losing faith in Republicans – Getting more and more tired of Reconstruction • People in the South already tired of Republicans – Tired of Reconstruction – Troops still in the South
1870’s • Memory of war fading – Glorious cause of freeing slaves and preserving Union a thing of the past • Racism in the North – Tired of Reconstruction • Tax dollars going South • Support growing for Democrats – KKK effective in stopping freedmen from voting – White men responding at the polls
Mid 1870’s • Democrats have control of all southern states by 1874 • Election of 1876: – Hayes (R) v. Tilden (D) – Republicans: Continuing Reconstruction • Support from Freedmen – Democrats: Ending Reconstruction • Support of white southerners • Gaining support from northerners
No Reelection • Grant wanted to run again in 1876, Republicans afraid of more scandals, and of the Democratic gains in the mid-term elections – Rutherford B. Hayes (Rep) v. Samuel J. Tilden (D) • Tilden overthrew Tweed ring of Tammany Hall – Carried south and some northern states – Disputed returns from Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, Oregon – Constitution had no method to determine disputed returns • Decision lay with Congress – Senate Republican, House Democrat • Telephone line invented by Alexander Graham Bell
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