Reasons for British Leadership u The Enclosure Movement

Reasons for British Leadership u The Enclosure Movement • This movement, which privatized land formerly available to all for grazing and farming, concentrated land ownership in fewer hands. • With no land to work, small farmers were displaced, thus forming a pool of cheap labor

u The Agricultural Revolution • Crop rotation replaced the open field system • Landowners experimented with new crops such as turnips and new inventions such as the seed drill.

u Population Explosion • New farming methods produced more food • Medical advances such as Edwards Jenner’s discovery of a Small Pox vaccine reduced death rates • The combined population of Great Britain and Ireland increased from 10 million in 1750 to 30 million in 1850

u Commercial Revolution • Successful British merchants had capital investment. • Great Britain had the most highly developed banking system in Europe

u The Enlightenment • The Royal Society exchanged scientific ideas. • British society encouraged and rewarded inventions and entrepreneurs.

The Textile Industry u The Incentive • The global demand for cotton cloth was enormous • Prompted by huge potential profits, British entrepreneurs financed new ways of spinning and weaving cotton

u The Inventions • In 1733 John Kay invented the flying shuttle, enabling a single weaver to work twice as fast. • In the mid 1760 s, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, making it possible for on weaver to works 6 -8 threads at a time.

• In 1769, Richard Arkwright invented a water frame that used waterpower from a fast-moving streams to drive spinning machines. • In 1779, Samuel Crompton invented a spinning machine called the mule that combined the jenny and the water frame. It made a stronger thread.

• In 1785, Edmund Cartwright invented a power loom that used waterpower to dramatically speed up weaving. • In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, making it possible to efficiently remove seeds from the cotton fiber.

u As a result of these continuous technological improvements, the output of cotton fiber from British textile factories rose from 40 million yards in 1785 to more than 2 billion yards in 1850.

u The Steam Engine • Thomas Newcomen built a stem engine for pumping out mines in 1702 • James Watt patented the first steam engine in 1769 • The steam engine rapidly replaced waterpower in British textile factories. • Steam power played a key role in boosting iron production.

u The Railroad • Steam power enabled inventors to build locomotives. • English entrepreneurs wanted a railroad line to connect the port of Liverpool with the inland city of Manchester, the heart of the spinning and weaving industry. The Liverpool-Manchester Railway opened in 1830.

• By 1850, Britain had over 6’ 000 miles of railroad track. • Railroads had the following far-reaching effects: Stimulated further industrial growth u Created regional markets for agricultural and industrial goods u Reduced the cost of shipping freight u Promoted leisure travel u

Great Britain’s Industrial Dominance u Statistical Measures of British Prosperity, 1850 • Manufactured one-half of the world's cotton • Mined tow-thirds of the world’s coal • Mined more than one-half of the world’s iron • Controlled one-third of the world’s international trade

u The Great Exhibition, 1851 • The exhibition was held to celebrate Britain’s undisputed economic and technological dominance. • Britain’s Hall of Machinery featured the locomotive engines, hydraulic presses, and power looms that had powered the Industrial revolution. • the great exhibition of 1851 London Bing Videos

u Making comparisons: The Crystal Palace and the Arc De Triomphe • The Crystal Palace in London Commissioned to celebrate British leadership in the industrial age u Enclosed 18 acres and almost 1 million sq, feet of exhibition space. u Featured prefabricated glass panels and cast-iron columns. u Demonstrated the possibilities of mass production. Crystal Palace site London 2012 Universal Exposition Universelle 1851 World Great Exhibition - You. Tube u

• The Arc de Triomphe in Paris Commissioned to celebrate French victories during the Revolution and the Age of Napoleon. u Based on the triumphal arches of ancient Rome u Combined a Neoclassical arch with romantic relief sculptures u Reached a height of 164 feet, making it the largest arch ever built. u ? Arc de Triomphe, Paris [HD] ? - You. Tube u

Social Effects of Industrialization u The Factory System • The factory was a place where large numbers of workers used machines to manufacture goods • As the factory system spread, the putting-out system disappeared.

u Working-class misery • Early factories exposed workers to dangerous machines and deadly diseases. • The demand for cheap labor led to the widespread employment of women and young children. Industrial Revolution in Europe - Bing Videos • Workers had no health insurance and little job security.

u Urbanization • The factory system transformed many small towns into crowded cities. Between 1760 and 1850, the population of Manchester surged from 45, 000 to 300, 000. • Between 1800 and 1850, the number of European cities with more than 100, 000 inhabitants rose from 22 to 47. • Workers lived in crowded slums that lacked sanitation. Entire families lived in a single dark room.

u The middle-class prosperity • The middle-classes, or bourgeoisie, enjoyed unprecedented prosperity, political power, and leisure time. • The haute bourgeoisie included wealthy bankers, merchants, and industrialists. • The petite bourgeoisie included shopkeepers, skilled artisans, professional men, and the clergy.

Classical British Economic Theory u Shared beliefs • Accepted the laissez-faire policies advocated in Adams Smith’s Wealth of Nations. • Insisted that supply and demand would act as an invisible hand so that selfish individual acts would ultimately benefit the whole society. • Opposed government regulations that interfered with the competitive free market. • Believed government policies should be limited to enforcing contracts, protecting private property, and ensuring national defense.

u Thomas Malthus on population • Malthus argued that human population grows geometrically, while food supply expands arithmetically. • He insisted that human population would inevitably outstrip food production, thus making famine and misery inevitable

u David Ricardo on wages • Influenced by Malthus’s pessimistic appraisal of the plight of the working class, David Ricardo formulated the “iron law of wages” • According to Ricardo, labor is a commodity whose price is determined by the law of supply and demand.

• Ricardo contented that increasing working-class wages would prompt laborers to have more children. As the supply of workers increased, their wages would decline. • The iron law of wages left no room for a better future for working-class families. It provided strong support for opposing labor unions and refusing to raise wages.

Working-class protest in Great Britain u The Luddites • Named after Ned Ludd, frustrated English workers known as Luddites broke into textile factories and smashed the machinery • These acts of despair could not stop the Industrial revolution. Parliament quickly responded by passing a law making the destruction of machines a capital offense. • Workers gradually came to realize that destroying machines would not improve their lives. Instead, they had to form labor unions to fight for higher wages and better working conditions.

u Early labor unions • The Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 prohibited British workers from organizing to improve their condition. • Under pressure from labor and middleclass reformers, Parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1825. • In 1875, British trade unions won full legal status, including the right to strike.

Socialism u Shared beliefs • The existing distribution of wealth is unjust. The “haves” possess more than they need while the “have-nots” possess barely enough to survive. • The resources and means of production should be owned by the community. • The profits of human labor should be equitably distributed.

u Utopian Socialism • Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, and Robert Owen were the most prominent Utopian Socialists. • They advocated social and economic planning to create societies based on cooperation rather than competition. • Although the Utopians founded a number of cooperative communities, their experiments all failed.

u Marxian Socialism • In the Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels asserted that “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggles”. • Marx believed that the history of class conflict is best understood through the dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The thesis is the dominant state of affairs. It inevitably gives rise to a conflicting or contradictory force called the antithesis. The resulting clash between thesis and antithesis produces a new state of affairs called the synthesis.

• Marx argued that nineteenth-century society had split “into two great classes directly facing each other: bourgeoisie and proletariat. ” as owners of means od production, the bourgeoisie were thesis. The proletariat or workers were the antithesis. • Marx contended that a class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat.

• The “dictatorship of the proletariat” would be a transitional phase leading “to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society” in which there would be no private ownership of the means of production. • Marx and Engels argued that women were exploited by both men and capitalists

u Test Tip: • Marxism is one of the most frequently tested topics on the APEuro exam. Test writers expect you to recognize famous qoutes by Marx and Engels and identify key concepts such as the dialectical process, class conflict, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and classless society.

u Edward Bernstein and Evolutionary Socialism • Marx predicted that as workers became more exploited they would unite to overthrow the bourgeoisie. Instead, as capitalism matured, working conditions improved. Why? • Led by Edward Bernstein, “evolutionary” socialists began to revise Marxian doctrne to adjust to new economic realities • Bernstein rejected Marx’s concept of class struggle and instead sought to achieve socialist goals by a process of gradual reform.