Reading Comprehension TE 301 Comprehension Comprehension is the

Reading Comprehension TE 301

Comprehension • Comprehension is “the act of constructing meaning with oral or written text” (Duke &. – It is a constructive process – Meaning does not reside in the oral or written text – The reader/listener creates and adjusts the mental representation of the text Carlisle, 2011, p. 200) Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge.

Reading Comprehension • “The process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (Rand Reading Study Group, 2002, p. xiii) Reader Text Meaning RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Towards an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Education.

Reading Comprehension Model • Reliant upon: – READER FACTORS--what readers bring to the reading process, (including purpose, motivation and strategies) Reader Context Reading Comprehension – TEXT FACTORS--author’s ideas, words used, organization and presentation of ideas – ACTIVITY or the purpose and task behind the reading Activity Text RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Towards an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Education.

Comprehension • Thus, comprehension is “the overall meaning made of text through the interaction of reader, text, and context factors” (Duke & Carlisle, 2011, p. 200). Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge

Reading Comprehension Development • Is a growth (vs. mastery) construct – You can continue to develop as a comprehender throughout your life. • Develops over time and is influenced by instruction. Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge.

Reading Comprehension Development • There is no one single way in which comprehension develops for all readers (due to the various factors involved in the process). • Strengths and weaknesses in knowledge, skills, strategies, and dispositions related to comprehension vary from person to person. Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge.

Some Factors Influencing Comprehension Development • WORD LEVEL PROCESSES – Decoding and word recognition • Less effort to decode means more effort for comprehension • Skilled comprehenders can recognize when a word is missed because it “doesn’t make sense” – Vocabulary • More extensive vocabulary promotes comprehension • If the reader “knows” the word, reader spends less time figuring out individual words and more time available for general comprehension Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume III. (pp. 545561). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Some Factors Influencing Comprehension Development • PROCESSES ABOVE WORD LEVEL – Prior Knowledge • Draw on schema to aid in comprehension • Use inferences from schema to help comprehend – Controlled Processing • Use a variety of processes to help make meaning with/of text • Including: aware of purpose for reading, getting an overview of the text, predicting what the text is about, reading selectively, questioning, imagining, clarifying, revising or integrating prior knowledge, figuring out meanings of new words, interpreting text, evaluating quality and reviewing the text after reading Pressley, M. (2000). What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of? In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume III. (pp. 545561). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Some Factors Influencing Comprehension Development • In addition to decoding and word recognition, vocabulary, prior knowledge, and controlled processing, other factors can affect comprehension including: – Oral language more broadly – Fluency – Short-term/Working memory – Motivation – Graphophonological semantic cognitive flexibility – Knowledge of and skill with specific genres – Comprehension strategy use

Influence of Oral Language • “Language is the knowledge and use of a set of symbols to represent ideas and intentions…[It] is used to convey meanings…for communication, exchanges of ideas and information” (Duke & Carlisle, 2011, p. 200). • Comprehension refers to the listener’s/reader’s understanding of the speaker’s/writer’s message. Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge.

Influence of Oral Language • Students’ development in oral communication (listening and speaking) influences their literacy acquisition. • Oral language capabilities predict reading comprehension in the early years of school. • Thus, language is a natural means to teach and examine comprehension. Duke, N. K. , & Carlisle, J. (2011). The Development of Comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 199 -228). New York, NY: Routledge.

The Role of Fluency • When students read fluently (with appropriate pace, accuracy, and prosody), it indicates higher word recognition levels and frees up cognitive attention for comprehension. • Use of prosody also helps the reader to comprehend and reflects comprehension of the text that is read. Duke, N. K. , Pressley, M. , & Hilden, K. (2004). Difficulties with reading comprehension. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds. ), Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders (pp. 501 -520). New York: Guilford Press.

Short-term or Working Memory • Some research suggests that a student who struggles to comprehend may not have the same short-term or working memory capacity as those who do not struggle. • Student may not be able “to hold” what is read in the short-term memory. Duke, N. K. , Pressley, M. , & Hilden, K. (2004). Difficulties with reading comprehension. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds. ), Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders (pp. 501 -520). New York: Guilford Press.

Motivation • More motivating texts and instructional contexts can lead to greater comprehension. • Expectancy x value framework from earlier in the course applies as well. • The less students choose to read, the less opportunity they have to develop fluency, practice applying comprehension strategies, learn new vocabulary words, build world knowledge. Duke, N. K. , Pressley, M. , & Hilden, K. (2004). Difficulties with reading comprehension. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds. ), Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and Disorders (pp. 501 -520). New York: Guilford Press.

Comprehension Strategies Students should use a variety of strategies (“intentional mental actions during reading that improve reading comprehension” – p. 11), including: • Activating prior knowledge/predicting • Questioning • Visualizing • Monitoring, clarifying, and fix-up • Drawing inferences • Summarizing/retelling Shanahan, T. , Callison, K. , Carriere, C. , Duke, N. K. , Pearson, P. D. , Schatschneider, C. , & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3 rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010 -4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education. Retrieved from whatworks. ed. gov/publications/practiceguides.

Comprehension Strategies of Hypertext • Reading hypermedia text requires many of the same skills and strategies as reading conventionally printed texts, but they may play out somewhat differently and be used to different degrees. • Reading hypermedia text also requires some additional skills and strategies. Duke, N. K. , Schmar-Dobler, E. , & Zhang, S. (2006). Comprehension and technology. In M. C. Mc. Kenna, L. D. Labbo, R. D. Kieffer, & D. Reinking (Eds. ), International handbook of literacy and technology, Volume II (pp. 317 -326). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Informal Assessments of Comprehension • Retelling • Summarization • Observations during class discussions or reading groups • Graphic organizers • Journal entries • Listening and reading comprehension • Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI)

Formal Assessments of Comprehension • Comprehension subtests as part of other criterionreferenced or norm-referenced standardized tests, such as: • Gates-Mac. Ginitie • Iowa Test of Basic Skills • MEAP • Some cloze assessments: Mc. Kenna and Stahl page 179 • Concepts of Comprehension Assessment (COCA)

Comprehension Assessment • Look beyond test scores to understand performance on specific passages and items • Triangulate your data – Formal assessments – Informal assessments • If a student is struggling with comprehension, determine what cause or causes might be at work Determine where the issue begins, rather than just looking at the end (comprehension) • Determine what the best course for instruction is based on the various causes (and what you can or can’t address).

Overview of Instructional Strategies for Developing Comprehension 1. Build disciplinary and world knowledge. 2. Provide exposure to a volume and range of texts. 3. Provide motivating texts and contexts for reading. 4. Teach strategies for comprehending. 5. Teach text structures.

Overview of Instructional Strategies for Developing Comprehension 6. Engage students in discussion. 7. Build vocabulary and language knowledge. 8. Integrate reading and writing. 9. Observe and assess. 10. Differentiate instruction. From Duke, N. K. , Pearson, P. D. , Strachan, S. L. , & Billman, A. K. (2011). Essential elements of fostering and teaching reading comprehension. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds. ), What research has to say about reading instruction (4 th ed. ) (pp. 51 -93). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Focal Instructional Strategy: Visualization “Proficient readers spontaneously and purposely create mental images while and after they read. The images emerge from all five sensese as well as the emotions and are anchored in a reader’s prior knowledge” (Keene & Zimmerman, 1997). Teaching Visualization: • Model • Student Practice • Sharing • Drawing • Integrating into everyday reading and writing Miller, C. P. (2011). Opeing the door: Teaching students to use visualization to improve comprehension. Retrieved from http: //www. educationworld. com/a_curr/profdev 094. shtml

Issues for English Language Learners • Some literacy skills can be transferred within languages, promoting greater comprehension. • Limited vocabulary or background knowledge relevant to the text can hinder reading comprehension; strong vocabulary or background knowledge relevant to the text can support comprehension. • Limited word identification skill in the language of the text may limit comprehension. Verhoeven, L. (2011). Second Language Reading acquisition. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds. ), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume IV. (pp. 661 -683). New York, NY: Routledge.