Reading Assessment and Instruction Using Levels of Functioning

Reading Assessment and Instruction Using Levels of Functioning to Assess Reading and Determine Instructional Expectations

Factors in Deciding How to Teach Reading l l Student attitude, energy, and motivation Effectiveness of previous approaches Clear diagnostic information of specific reading problems (of the individual) Teacher knowledge of reading strategies

Functioning Levels Operationalized for Reading l l l Independent: >98% word recognition + >90% comprehension. Thumbnail: @95% overall Instructional: 95% word rec. and >75% comprehension. Thumbnail: @ 80 - 90% overall Frustration: <90% word rec. and <50% comprehension. Thumbnail: <80 % overall

Hierarchy of Instruction l l Reading for accuracy Reading for fluency

Strands of Reading Curriculum l l l word attack word recognition reading comprehension

Word Attack l Definition – Analysis of words – Represent discrete oral sounds associated with letters or groups of letters l Scope and Sequence – Should be developed according to observed needs of the student and/or in relationship to curriculum l Major Approaches – Phonics – Structural Analysis

Performance Measures l l l Isolated sounds - 70 spm @ 98%accuracy Words in a list - 80 wpm @ 98% accuracy Words in text - 100 wpm @ 98% accuracy

Sequence of Fluency Measures l l l l Sounds in isolation Saying nonsense words Saying phonetically regular words Oral reading from text Isolated prefixes and suffixes endings, prefixes , & suffixes with nonsense roots Structural analysis of words

Word Attack Levels of Assessment l Knowledge – Associate letters with sounds – Recognize beginnings and endings l Application – Apply rules for decoding • familiar words • unfamiliar words

Error Analysis l Topology – reproduction errors l Miscue analysis – errors in grammar and/or meaning l Specific word attack errors – based on what has been taught

Word Recognition l Definition: – treating a group of letters as a single unit l Scope and sequence – Curriculum types • Developmental • Functional l Major Approaches – Student-specific words in the curriculum – Overall fluency

Performance Measures l Latency and rate – words in isolation l Passages in text

Levels of Assessment l Associate letters in sequence as words – 95% accuracy l Do so to automaticity – 95% fluency

Reading Comprehension l Definition – ability to obtain meaning from print. l Scope and Sequence – Word attack and recognition are important prerequisites – Literal, inferential, and critical comprehension – Little consensus on what skills to teach and in what sequence

Performance Measures of Reading Comprehension l Comprehension is measured indirectly: – that is, they are inferential l Often measurements of RC are more accurately influenced by – – – Language Cognition/reasoning Memory Literary skills Prior Knowledge

Language Influences on Reading Comprehension l To comprehend text requires – knowledge of vocabulary (semantics) and grammar (syntax) – the student must know what words mean • apart and in conjunction with other words – language competence of the learner must match the language demands of the text – Reading comprehension cannot exceed general language competence.

Cognition/reasoning Influences on Reading Comprehension l Prediction/extrapolation – prediction requires going beyond information presented – extrapolationn reqires prediction plus making unstated conclusions l Higher order skills – summarize, analyze, synthesize

Memory Influences on Reading Comprehension l l immediate or long term recall/retell recognition of main ideas or details

Literary Skills Influences on Reading Comprehension l Recognition of literary devices – satire, irony, sarcasm – similes, metaphors l Interpretation – literary devices – poetry

Influence of Prior Knowledge on Reading Comprehension l l Students can comprehend new material if it covers something they already know New material that covers something unexperienced may be more difficult

Guidelines for Measuring Reading Comprehension l l l Measures should match vocabulary and syntax of the material covered Assessments should measure comprehension (not analysis, synthesis, or evaluation) Assessment should measure literal comprehension Assessment should allow the student see the passages to avoid recall/memory influences Assessment of comprehension should account for prior knowledge – pretest or provide relevant background information

Common Performance Measures of Reading Comprehension l l l Sentence verification tests Student retelling Time oral reading Cloze procedures Text comprehension quesitons

Sentence verification tests (Prompted Written Recall) l A group of sentences – drawn from a passage – with changed meaing – distractors l l Student reads and answers (from memory) whether information in sentences were in or same in meaning as the original passage. >85% = Independent, 75 -85% = Instructional, <65% = Frustration

Student retelling l l l Students read and paraphrase as they go along Students read entire passage and paraphrase at the end Procedures for scoring include – Percent total words retold per words in the passage – Percent content words retold per content words in the passage

Time oral reading l Fluency of reading is highly associated with reading comprehension – Measure words read correctly per total words read – Correct words per minute l See Salvia and Hughes (1990) for detailed procedures

Cloze Procedures l l l Choose a grade level passage of 250 words Provide a 25 -word lead-in paragraph/passage for reading sense Delete every 5 th word and replace with a blank (@ 15 spaces each) Provide a guided pre-sample for understanding Make the procedure untimed

Cloze Procedures l l l Student reads the passage and says or writes the missing words (spelling not a concern) Exact correct words or close synonyms are accepted >57% = Independent, 44 -56% = instructional, <44% = frustration

Answering Text Questions l l l 5 - 10 questions at appropriate reading level Use text explicit and implicit questions >90% = Independent, 75 -89% = Instructional, <75% = Frustration

Other Common Reading Assessments l l Informal Reading Inventories Content Reading Inventories Textual Reading/Study Strategies Observation/Error analysis

A Classroom Informal Reading Inventory (In the Content Area) l l l Pick 20 -25 words from 2 grade levels to the present (present to 2 grade levels above for potentially advanced readers) using appropriate subject matter texts. Select passages of 200 -250 words from the same texts. Construct 5 questions for each passage: include recall facts, inferential questions, and vocabulary definitions.

Observation/Error analysis l Checklists/Observational Instruments – Used to identify specific areas of difficulty l Error Analysis – Used for identifying common errors to target for instruction

Levels of Assessment l l l Literal, inferential, and critical comprehension require different assessments Beginning students should assessed for literal comprehension Advance students can be assessed for higher levels of comprehension Inferential comprehension requires students to analyze, synthesize and draw conclusions Critical comprehension requires evaluation and judgements of the reading’s worth.

Diagnostic Information Assessment l Compare reading proficiency of students in the class with target student – Important to determine proficiency on what the student can be expected to do. – Reading Proficiency Statistics from NCES

Reading Instruction for Secondary Students with Mild Disabilities Strategies and Models

The Reading Process l l Motivational Analysis Vocabulary Development – Word Recognition, – Word Knowledge (Definition) l Teaching Comprehension – Strategic Reading – Strategic Teaching

Motivational Analysis l l Identify why student needs to read in your content area Identify why student will read in your content area Identify how student is convinced to read in your content area (primary and secondary reinforcers) Attach reinforcers to reading activities

Word Recognition (for highly deficient readers) l Identifying words – use of computer assisted instruction or flashcards – Word ID strategies (e. g. , DISSECT) l Use word banks with motivational inventories (token reinforcement)

Word Knowledge (Definition) l Concept diagramming (mapping) – Computer-generated maps (e. g. , Inspiration) l l Finding synonyms, Contextual analysis Using Reference Sources Morphemic Analysis – Understand the parts, understand the word

Strategic Reading l Study Strategies – Analyze sections of the text l Comprehension Strategies – RAP • Read the paragraph • Ask yourself what the paragraph is about • Put the main idea and two details in your own words.

Strategic Teaching l l l Reciprocal Teaching Direct Instruction Adaptation Analysis

Reciprocal Teaching l l Summarize Question Clarify Predict

Direct Instruction l Structure the learning climate into predictable activities that provide – a high level of teacher-student, and student interaction – make efficient use of learned strategies l Teacher behaviors include – questioning – paraphrasing – visual imagery

Adaptation Analysis l Options – Reduce the expected amount of learning – Match textbooks to learning abilities – Enhance content through study guides – Provide technology accommodations – promote use of appropriate learning strategies

Writing samples l l l 10 minute probes Story starters (pictures) Calculate the words written and correct words written – correct = spelled correctly and appropriate mechanics l l Determine % accuracy of writing sample. Determine most appropriate writing

Writing Sample 1: Picture of a flying saucer circling a small town l a green space man comes to boise. he kill boys and girls. there moms and dads are sad.

Writing Sample 2: Picture of a party l its a party and my friends come to my house. we dance and Ill have lotsa fun.

Sample 3: Picture of skier with child l my skisut is red. I go fast on hills. my sisters ski with me. its to cold to ski for a long time.

Reading Comprehension Sample 1 l In reading “Mary had a Little Lamb” – What do you think the teacher would say if Mary brought the lamb a second day?

Reading Comprehension Sample 2 l In reading “Mary had a Little Lamb” – How do you think Mary felt about her day at school?