Reaction and Nationalism Chapter 15 What is nationalism
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Reaction and Nationalism Chapter 15
What is nationalism? • Nationalism is the concept that a person’s primary identity is strongly defined by their membership within a nation • Nations can be defined by many different characteristics • Geography • Language • Common history • Ethnicity or race • Religion • Nationalism can be a divisive or unifying force, depending on the circumstances
Part I: Italy
Italy Before Unification • Italy had been politically divided up until the 1800 s • Individual city states were ruled by local families, or by foreign monarchs • Trade barriers, poor transportation, and different Italian dialects discourage political and economic unification
Early Attempts • Early attempts at Italian unification failed • Giuseppe Mazzini formed a secret society for the unification of the Italian states • Mazzini was able to get some Italian states to unify to fight Austrian soldiers who had occupied some Italian cities • This war to expel the invaders failed, but began to get Italians thinking about unification
Victor Emmanuel and Camillo di Cavour • Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, tried to keep support for national unity alive • With the support of his count, Camillo di Cavour, Victor Emmanuel was able to strengthen Sardinia as a state to be reckoned with by other European powers • Sardinia even participated in the Crimean War, which gave them some say in the end treaty
Sardinia Defeats Austria • Cavour created an alliance between Italy and France against Austria • He then encouraged nationalists in Lombardy to revolt against Austria; in turn, Austria declared war on Sardinia • By the time this war had ended, Sardinia had defeated Austria and had expanded its power with new Italian states that unified with it
Garibaldi and Southern Italy • Giuseppe Garibaldi was a nationalist leader in the southern parts of Italy • He had learned guerilla warfare in South America, and had returned to Italy to lead his supporters in a nationalist uprising • Garibaldi was able to unite many of the southern Italian states with many military victories
Part II: Germany
The Strength of Prussia • The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation as a defensive alliance against France • Different powerful German states existed, led by Prussia and Austria • William I became king of Prussia in 1861 – he supported a strong military for the strength of his nation
Otto von Bismarck • William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as his prime minister • Bismarck shared the king’s view of a strong government and army to achieve national unity • Bismarck supported the idea of realpolitik – a nation should pursue its advantage by any means necessary. Politics should be based on ideas and not morals – look out for own interests. • Bismarck believed that the issues of the day would be solved by “blood and iron. ”
Bismarck’s Plan • Bismarck wanted to: • Raise money for army expansion • Reduce Austrian influence among the German states • Unify the German states, except Switzerland Austria • Bismarck went to war three times to do this
Prussia’s Wars • First, Prussia allied with Austria to defeat Denmark – this created tensions between Prussia and Austria • Then, he created ties with Russia, France, and Italy to alienate Austria – this resulted in a war with Austria, which Prussia won • This established the German Confederation, an alliance between German states that Prussia was the head of
Franco-Prussian War • Finally, Prussia and the German Confederation went to war with France • The Prussians quickly and easily defeated the French, using strategy and operational methods similar to Napoleon’s • The German states had unified in this war, in a common alliance against the French
The Unification of Germany • In the French palace of Versailles, the German leaders proclaimed the beginning of the German empire, and thus created Germany • William I became the kaiser of Germany • Bismarck became chancellor
Germany’s Industrial Growth • German political and business leaders worked hard to make Germany an industrial power • With investment from Great Britain, France, and Belgium, Germany quickly modernized and industrialized • By the end of the 1900 s, Germany was a strong industrial power
German Militarism and Bismarck’s End • Bismarck kept socialist groups from taking control of the German government • When William II took power as kaiser of Germany, he continued to work with Bismarck to support German militarism. • Militarism = support for a strong military • Bismarck finally resigns in 1890
Part III: Russia
Russia • The Romanov dynasty had ruled Russia for many hundreds of years into the 1800 s • Some czars had worked hard to modernize Russia, while others were distrustful of outside, western ideas – latinstvo • This struggle would finally start to come to a climax in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries
Western Ideas • The Russian officers who fought Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars were exposed to the ideas and technology of western Europe • They formed secret societies with the goals of making Russia more modern by adopting these ideas • This eventually resulted in the Decembrist Revolt, an attempt to modernize Russia through a military revolt
Decembrist Revolt • The Decembrist Revolt took place when Alexander I died, and his son Nicholas I took the throne • The revolt was defeated, but had two results: • Leaders of the revolt were seen as martyrs to a cause, and inspiration to others • The czars also constantly ruled with the threat of an uprising
Defeat and Resolve • Russia’s defeat by France and the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War showed to many Russians how technologically backwards Russia was • Czar Alexander II believed that Russia needed to industrialize to become a major power and compete with other nations
The Serfs • Russia still relied on peasant labor for its agriculture • Serfs were peasants who were tied to the land that they worked – basically a more restrictive form of feudalism • For Russia to industrialize, it needed available labor • To get this labor, Alexander II freed the serfs in 1861
The Plight of the Serfs • The serfs obtained legal freedom, and were given land, but had to pay back the landholders for the land they were given • This kept many of them tied to the land still • Some peasants gave up farming and moved to the cities to become unskilled urban workers
Some Modernization • Alexander did other things to modernize and liberalize Russia: • Limited the use of Russian secret police • Eased restrictions on the press • Modernized the judicial system • Shortened mandatory military service, from 25 years to 6 • Still, these reforms would not satisfy the people – encouraged them
Radical Movements • Radical reformers, many who were upper or middle class intellectuals, continued to criticize the czar and the government • Many advocated the ending of the current political, economic, and or social structure, for a complete re-making of society in some other form • Some groups turned to violence, assassinations, etc. , to get their point across • Alexander II tries to crush these radicals – was assassinated in 1881
Alexander III • Alexander III takes back many of his father’s reforms – if you can’t appease them, crush them • Restored censorship of the press • Extended powers of the secret police • Alexander also encouraged the Russification of the country • Used nationalism to impose a Russian identity on people • Repressed many non-Russian ethnic, language, and religious groups
Nicholas II • When Nicholas II took over in 1894, many problems continued, and he wasn’t strong willed enough to stop them • Peasants still unhappy • Middle-class reformers pushed for a constitutional monarchy • Most importantly, the Russian working class had increased in size dramatically, and were working and living in poor conditions
Revolutionary Groups • Several revolutionary groups had developed in Russia – most followed the teachings of Karl Marx • Mensheviks – Russia should develop into an industrialized nation and then a socialist revolution could occur • Bolsheviks – Professional revolutionaries could use force to bring about a revolution
Russian Tension • Russia’s poor showing in the Russo-Japanese war reinforced that Russia was not a modern nation • Many people began to oppose the czarist government • Bloody Sunday – a peaceful demonstration of about 200, 000 workers resulted in Russian soldiers firing on the demonstrators
The Russian Situation • Soviets, or workers’ councils began to form to voice workers’ grievances • All revolutionary groups called for representative government and universal suffrage • General strikes resulted in Nicholas allowing the formation of a duma to give the people representation – he later dissolves it • These events will combine with Russia’s experience in World War I to bring revolution
Part IV: Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary • Klemens von Metternich, in Austria, had worked to keep liberal and nationalist forces from threatening Austria • In 1848, the revolutions that swept through France and other places in Europe came to Austria • After a revolution, the Austrian monarchy was able to re-establish itself and put down the liberal rebellion
The Dual Monarch • To keep the empire from being destabilized by Hungarian Magyars, Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph split Austria-Hungary into a dual monarchy • Both Austria and Hungary would operate basically independently, for internal matters • The Emperor of Austria would politically rule both monarchies
Nationalism • Nationalist tensions in the Balkans began to create divisive pressures in the Austro-Hungarian empire • The decline of the Ottoman empire in this area allowed many nationalist groups to speak out for independence • Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania – revolts, which the Ottomans suppressed
Bulgaria • Russia had controlled Bulgaria as an expansion of its empire • At the Congress of Berlin, the European powers stripped Russia of Bulgaria and divided the parts of it into independent nations, or holdings of other nations • These divisions created small nations and other divisive tensions within the larger empires, like the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary
Balkan League • The Balkan League was a political alliance of many of the now-free Balkan states • These nations helped many other Balkan independence movements separate from the Ottoman Empire • But as these wars went on, the Balkan nations began to have conflicts with each other, as well
End Results • Serbia, a Slavic nation, gained more power and would exert its influence on other independence movements • Russia supported these Slavic movements to gain power in the region • French, British, and German governments worked to maintain a balance of power in that region • With these increased tensions, writers called the Balkans the “powder keg of Europe”
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