Rational Thinking Piyarudee Chaiyaporn Department of Philosophy Faculty
- Slides: 111
Rational Thinking Piyarudee Chaiyaporn Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University
Outline I Rational Thinking What is reasoning? What in an inference? What is argument? Deductive argument Inductive argument II Critical Thinking How to tell good from bad arguments How to identify fallacies
Rational thinking What is rational thinking? Reasoning or thinking by using reasons properly Thinking based on facts or good evidences or justified beliefs Thinking by following the right method or the right steps which are known as the correct rules of inferences to draw conclusions or implications from, say, a fact or a statement, a group of evidences or a justified belief etc.
Rational thinking What is rational thinking? Most of rational thinking is logical thinking. Rational thinking is most likely to lead us to the truth and knowledge.
Rational thinking What is Reasoning? Making of inferences from premises to conclusions [Copi, 1979] Inferring an assertion from assertions already admitted, e. g. in the demonstrations of geometry [Mill, 1843] Concluding from generals to particulars [Mill, 1843] Reasoning is studied as part of Logic, which is a subject that seeks to determine how people should reasoning if they want to avoid error and falsehood.
Rational thinking Example 1: Reasoning at a BTS station Buses are usually late when they are broken down. My bus is late today. _____________ Therefore, it must be broken down.
Rational thinking Example 2: Reasoning while on the road to some place The traffic is especially terrible today. Eithere is an accident ahead or a university has a commencement ceremony today There is no accident ahead. _____________ Therefore, a university must have a commencement ceremony today.
Rational thinking Example 3: Reasoning at a field trip A robin must have a red breast. That bird doesn’t have a red breast ____________ That bird can’t be a robin.
Rational thinking Example 4: Reasoning while going on a shopping spree This dress costs 1, 500. I have 2, 000 Baht left for this week and 5 more days to go. My daily meal is 100 Baht per day. ____________ I can’t buy this dress or I will have to starve for the rest of the week.
Rational thinking What are inference and rules of inferences? To infer is more of a term of art than to reason. An inference is a process by which we proceeds from the known to the unknown or from already established knowledge or accepted ideas to new ones. An inference is one of the most important means humans use to get at knowledge or truth. Other means include the use of intuition or direct perception/knowing, which is not studied by logic. Logic is a subject that is concerned with inferences and rules of inferences
Rational thinking Inferences are all around…. Example 1 - An inference found in a science book All mammals suckle their young Tigers are mammals Therefore, mother tigers suckle their young.
Rational thinking Can you tell the rule of inference that is used in Example 1?
Rational thinking It’s this rule. All As are B All Cs are A _____________ Therefore, all Cs are B
Rational thinking Example 2 – An inference found in a real-life conversation A: A supreme court justice must be an impartial person. This candidate has long records of impartiality. For instance, he once acquitted his son-in-law from a charge of physical assaults without giving the plaintiff a fair trial. B: So you think he should not be appointed to this post, do you not? A: Absolutely!
Rational thinking Can you tell the rule of inference that is used in Example 2?
Rational thinking It is this rule. All A is B Not B _____________ Therefore, not A
Rational thinking Or this rule. Which is an equivalent of the former rule. If A, then B Not B _____________ Therefore, not A
Rational thinking Why study logic/logical thinking to begin with? Come up with a situation where practicing your “logical” reasoning skills was useful in your life. How was it useful? Why was it useful? Come up with a situation where practicing your “logical” reasoning skills was useless in your life. How was it useless? Why was it useless?
Argument Some plausible answers Because most of rational thinking is logical thinking and rational thinking is that which is most likely to lead us to the truth of the matter. Because rational thinking is useful if we want to get things right or when we want to make the right (someone says the most optimal) decisions concerning matters that are important to us. Rational thinking captures the essence of mankind which is Rationality. Because we sometimes need to join with others to get to the truth and rational thinking helps us communicate better and more effectively.
Argument What is argument? To argue = to debate; to contest verbally; to convince by means of arguments A group of statements that consists of one or more premises and a conclusion that purportedly follows from the premises. To make an argument is to present your reasons for believing something.
Argument Example of “Follow from” Columbus believed that he would reach India sailing westbound from Europe. (Thought-1) Columbus conjectured that he would never have reached India if the earth were flat. (Thought-2) ------------------------------------Columbus concluded that he reached India, and that the world is round. (Thought-3) Thought-1 & Thought-2 > Thought-3
Argument Put differently, the third proposition (Thought-3) supposedly follows from the first two propositions (Thought-1 & Thought 2). • Taken as a group, these three propositions comprise an argument.
Argument and Explanation What is the difference? What do you argue about? An argument seeks to establish the truth of something. What do you explain about? An explanation presupposes the truth of something and then goes on to give an account of it.
Persuasion and argument There are many ways to try to persuade people. We can threaten people and hope to persuade them in this way, we can try to entice people to agree with us by bribing them with compliments. But if we hope to rationally persuade other people of the truth of our beliefs, we must argue with them. “Arguing with people” means, at a minimum, attempting to rationally persuade people of the truth of some belief. As noted, I can try to persuade you by using flattery or threats, etc. , but if I want rationally persuade you, I must give you an argument. (Jenks 2007: 1)
Argument An argument consists of 1) ______ 2) ______ Therefore, 3) ______ Premises Conclusion
Argument Premise indicators: Since, because, for, as, inasmuch as, for the reason that, owing to, given that, seeing that, may be inferred from, as indicated by, due to the fact that Conclusion indicators: Therefore, hence, thus, so, accordingly, consequently, it follows that , we may conclude, we may infer, implies that, entails that, as a result
Arguments are divided into two basic kinds: Deductive Inductive Formal logic deals with the deductive aspects of arguments, i. e. the relationship between premises and conclusion in order to examine if the given argument is valid or invalid. Informal logic deals with the inductive aspects of arguments such as meaning of terms, contextual implication, fallacies or sophistries. Critical thinking is the art of discovering fallacies and sophistries.
Deductive/inductive argument Adham: I’ve noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it comes back down, so I guess this next time when I kick it up it will come back down too. Induction > given good reasons probable Rizik: That’s Newton’s Law. Everything that goes up must come down. And so, if you kick the ball up, it must come down. Deduction > given valid form certain
Activity 1 Do you think it is a piece of reasoning? “Did you know, the Earth is really a large ball? ’ “Don’t be ridiculous. The Earth is a flat dish. ” “It can’t be. ” “Well, it is. I’m telling you. And if you used your eyes, you wouldn’t need telling. ” “I am using my eyes, and they tell me the Earth is round. ” “Then I’ll tell you something else. If you go round talking this kind of nonsense, someone is going to lock you up and throw away the key. ” “But just listen. ” “No, you listen. The Earth is flat. ” “It’s a round. ” “Flat. F-L-A-T, flot!” “ROUND…. ”
Activity 2 Q 1. Is this just a quarrel, or is there reasoned argument going on here as well? If there is, find some examples. Scene: a table for two in a restaurant A: What are you going to have? (Sound of a mobile phone) B: Just a minute. I’ve got a text message. A: Not another! B: Be quiet. I need to answer it. A: Why don’t you just switch it off? They’re a menace, those things. B: (Texting at the same time) You would’t say that if you had one. …
Activity 2 A: “… Firstly, you can’t sit quietly anywhere without having to listen to one end of someone else’s shouted conversation. Secondly, mobile phones are a health risk because they pour out microwaves that cook your brain. Thirdly, they distract drivers and cause road accidents. Therefore , like I said, the world would be a better place without them. ” B: “Well, I disagree. For a start there is no evidence that they are a health risk. They don’t distract drivers unless the drivers are stupid enough to have them switched on in the car. Not everybody shouts into their phones, and not everyone finds them irritating. They help people to keep in touch. They save lives in emergencies. So it is wrong to say we would be better off without them. ”
Activity 2 A: (Shouting) Well, I’m sorry but people do shout into them. They don’t know they’re doing it. And drivers do use them when they are speeding down the road. If someone crashed into you at a hundred kilometres per hour because he was heading a text message, you would soon change your tune. [ Therefore , the world would be better place if mobile phones had never been invented. ] B: Hang on, you’re blaming mobile phones, when you should be blaming the owners. Of course there always some idiots about who misuse things. It’s like guns, isn’t it? It’s not guns that kill people, it’s the people who fire the guns. You’re making the same mistake. [ So it is wrong to say we would be better off without them. ]
Activity 2 A: I’m not making any mistake. I agree, guns don’t shoot people unless someone fires them, but nor can a person shoot someone if there are no guns to do it with. And people couldn’t answer their phones in the car if there were no mobile phones in the first place. Therefore , the world would be better off without guns and without mobiles. Q. 2. Do you think whose view is more convincing? Why?
Deductive argument Generals Particulars General names e. g. women Particular names e. g. Piyarudee General propositions e. g. Women do not have Adam’s apple Particular propositions e. g. Piyarudee does not have Adam’s apple
Deductive argument Concluding from premises that include general propositions to a conclusion which is particular proposition e. g. Women do not have Adam’s apple, therefore Piyarudee does not have Adam’s apple
Deductive argument Concluding from premises that include general propositions to a conclusion which is particular proposition e. g. It is raining or it is snowing. It is not raining. So it is snowing.
Deductive argument Syllogism All humans are mortal. Socrates is a man. ___________ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Deductive argument Enthymeme Socrates is a man. ………. . ? . . . . ___________ Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Deductive argument Conditionals If all that exists is matter in motion, then there are no disembodied spirits. All that exists is matter in motion. ___________ Therefore. There are no immaterial spirits.
Deductive argument Good vs. Bad argument ➡ Good arguments : 1) A valid form of inference makes a good deductive argument. 2) Good reasons (= true and relevant reasons) in premises and a relevant generalisation make a good inductive argument.
Deductive argument Validity, Truth, Soundness Validity refers only to the formal structure of a deductive argument. A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. In a valid argument it’s logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false because the conclusion expresses what is implied by the premises. Truth or falsity characterises a proposition or statement, and not an argument. If an argument is valid and its premises are true, it is termed a sound argument.
Deductive Argument Syllogism Evaluation results All men are mortal. ? X is a not man. ___________ _ Therefore, X is not moral. All men are mortal. ? X is not mortal. ___________ _
Deductive Argument Syllogism All men are mortal. X is a man. __________ ___ Therefore, X is moral. All men are mortal. X is mortal. __________ ___ Evaluation results ? ?
Deductive argument Valid syllogism (1 st form) All Bs are C No B is C All As are B Some As are B Therefore All As are C No A is C Some As are not C
Deductive argument Valid syllogism (2 nd form) No C is B All Cs are B All As are B No A is B Some As are not B Therefore No A is C Some As are not C
Deductive argument Valid syllogism (3 rd form) All Bs are C No B is C Some Bs are C All Bs are A Some Bs are A Therefore Some As are C Some As are not C Some As are C
Deductive argument Valid syllogism (3 rd form) Some Bs are not C All Bs are A Therefore Some As are not C No B is C Some Bs are A Therefore Some As are not C
Deductive argument Valid syllogism (4 th form) All Cs are B Some Cs are B No C is B All Bs are A No B is A All Bs are A Therefore Some As are C Some As are not C
Deductive argument Tools for testing a deductive argument’s validity Euler circles Venn Diagram
Euler circle Mortal Men X
Venn Diagram Men Mortal 4 X
Deductive argument Other valid forms of deductive argument 1. Affirming the Antecedent (Modus Ponens) If p then q. P. Therefore, q.
Deductive argument Example: If he is as rich as he keeps telling us(p), he will lend money to people in need (q). He is rich. (p). ___________ Therefore, he lends money to people in need (q).
Deductive argument Other valid forms of deductive argument 2. Denying the Consequence (Modus Tollens) If p then q. Not q. Therefore, not p.
Deductive argument Example: If he is as rich as he keeps telling us(p), he will lend money to people in need (q). He never lend money to any people as far as everybody knows (p). _______________ Therefore, he is not as rich as he keeps telling us (not p).
Deductive argument Other valid forms of deductive argument 3. Hypothetical Syllogism If p then q. If q then r. Therefore, if p then r.
Deductive argument Example: If the Bank of Thailand raises interest rates, it will be more difficult to borrow money. If it’s more difficult to borrow money, car sales will fall. Therefore, if the Bank of Thailand raises interest rates, car sales will fall.
Deductive argument Other valid forms of deductive argument 4. Disjunctive syllogism Either p or q. Not p. Therefore q.
Deductive argument Example: Either she rides the bus or the train to school. She doesn’t ride the bus. Therefore, she rides the train to school.
Deductive argument Invalid forms of deductive argument 1. Affirming the Consequent If p, then q. Q. Therefore, p.
Deductive argument Example: If it rained (p), the roads become wet and slippery (q). The road is wet and slippery (q). Therefore, it rained (p).
Deductive argument Invalid forms of deductive argument 2. Denying the Antecedent If p, then q. Not p. Therefore, not q.
Deductive argument Example: If you do your job poorly (p), you will be fired (q). You do your job superbly (not p). ______________ Therefore, you are not fired (not q).
Deductive argument Validity Is a matter of form. Any argument that exhibits any of these forms, it is valid, regardless of whether the statements it contains are true.
Deductive argument Soundness: Now consider this argument. If one cat is made of soap, then every cat is made of soap. One human is made of soap. _____________ Therefore, every cat is made of soap.
Deductive argument Soundness In an argument. . . ✴ …the premises should be good reasons to support the conclusion of the argument. A sound argument is one that meets both conditions of Being valid Having premises that are all true Only a sound argument provides a good reason for believing its conclusion.
Enthymeme A syllogism in which a premise (or conclusion) is unexpressed or missing
Enthymeme Example 1: You support killing animals because people who eat meat support killing animals. All meat eaters are animal-killing supporters. [You are meat eaters. ] __________ You are animal-killing supporters.
Enthymeme Example 2: All forms of killing cannot be justified, so wars cannot be justified. No killing are justified. [All wars are killing] -----------No wars are justified.
Enthymeme Example 3: Animals that are loved by someone should not be sold to a medical laboratory, and lost pets are certainly loved by someone. No animals that are loved … are animals that should be sold to… All lost pets are animals that are loved… ------------------------[ …. . Missing Conclusion? …]
Argument Argument-1: My parents take care of me. My parents don’t hit me. ----------------So, my parents love me.
Argument Argument-2: All parents love their sons and daughters. I am the eldest son (or daughter) of my parents. ---------------------------Therefore, my parents love me.
Inductive argument What is induction? An inference that we know to be true in a particular case or cases, will be true in all cases which resemble the former in certain important respects. The process by which we conclude that what is true of certain individuals of a class is true of the whole class, or that which is true at certain times will be true in similar circumstances at all times.
Inductive argument What is not induction? Example: After observing each and every planet in the solar system, we conclude that all the planets shine by the sun’s light.
Inductive argument Concluding from premises that include examples of particulars to a more general conclusion. e. g. [Lists of women] do not have Adam’s apple, therefore all women do not have Adam’s Apple.
Inductive argument Enumerative Induction A kind of reasoning we use when we arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of that group. Example: X percent of the observed members of A are B. Therefore, X percent of the entire group of A are B
Inductive argument Example: 54 percent of the students in this college are female Therefore, 54 percent of the students in this college are female.
Inductive argument Analogical Induction When we claim that two things that are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect, we make an analogical induction.
Inductive argument Example: Object A has properties F, G, H, etc. , as well as the property Z. Object B has properties F, G, H, etc. Therefore, object B probably has property Z.
Inductive argument Hypothetical induction (Abduction, Inference to the Best Explanation) 1. Phenomena P. 2. If hypothesis h were true, it would provide the best explanation of p. 3. Therefore, it’s probably that h is true.
Inductive argument Example from Sherlock Holmes “I know you came from Afghanistan…. [these are my steps of arriving at this conclusion], “Here is a gentleman of a medical type, but with the air of a military man. Clearly an army doctor, then. He has just come from the tropics, for his face is dark, and that is not the natural tint of his skin, for his wrists are fair. He has undergone hardship and sickness, as his haggard face says clearly. His left arm has been injured. He holds it in a stiff and unnatural manner. Where in the tropics would an English army have seen much hardship and got his arm wounded? Clearly in Afghanistan. The whole train of thought did not occupy a second. I then remarked than you came from Afghanistan, and you were astonished. ”
Inductive argument Strength and cogency Inductive arguments are not valid; if all premises are all true, the conclusion is possibly false. But they can still give us good reasons for believing their conclusions if these conditions are met.
Inductive argument Strength and cogency Strength: An argument is strong if it could establish its conclusion with a high degree of probability if all its premises were true. Cogency: an argument is cogent if all its premises are true. An argument is both strong and cogent if its conclusion was highly probable if all premises were true and if all its premises are true.
Complicated argument P 1 P 2 ____________ C 1 P 3 P 2 & P 3 _____________ C 2
Rational thinking must start out with facts or good evidences or justified beliefs that serve as premises. Question: where can one finds facts or good evidences? Textbooks? Conventional media (newspaper, radio, TV etc. )? Social media (reddit, twitter, blogs, facebook posts)? Government database? Scientific journals? Published researched/government- or EU-funded researches/researches by private corporates? Personal first-hand experiences? Can you think of other credible sources of facts or good evidences?
Fallacies or fallacious arguments are the mistakes in reasoning.
Fallacies e. g. Premise-1) Happiness is the end of life. Premise-2) The end of life is death. -------------------------Conclusion) So, happiness is death. A=B, B=C, then A=C (!)
Fallacies 1) Unacceptable premises Begging the question False dilemma
Fallacies 1) Begging the question (circular argument) Being a Buddhist monk is unhealthy and unnatural because it is bad for health and against nature to leave without sexual activity. Happiness is the highest good for humans since other goods are lower than happiness.
Fallacies 2) False dilemma Either you let me attend the Lady Gaga concert or I’ll be miserable for the rest of my life. I know you don’t want me to be miserable for the rest of my life, so it follows that you’ll let me attend the concert.
Fallacies 2) Insufficient premises Hasty Generalization Faulty Analogy False Cause Slippery Slope
Fallacies 3) Hasty generalization Ten milligrams of substance Z was fed to four mice, and within two minutes all four went into shock and died. Probably substance Z, in this amount, is fatal to mice in general. I drank a bottle of Singha beer thrice and found it flat and bitter. Probably I would find every bottle of Singha beer flat and bitter.
Fallacies 4) False analogy When water is poured on the top of a pile of rocks, it always trickles down to the rocks on the bottom. Similarly, when rich people make lots of money, we can expect this money to trickle down to the poor
Fallacies 5) False cause Successful business executives are paid salaries of $100, 000. Therefore, the best way to ensure that this newlyhired will become a successful executive is to raise his salary to $100, 000. There are more laws on the books today than ever before, and more crimes are being committed than ever before. Therefore, to reduce crime we must eliminate the laws.
Fallacies 5) False cause During the past two months, every time that the cheerleaders have worn blue ribbons in their hair, the basketball team has been defeated. Therefore, to prevent defeats in the future, the cheerleaders should get rid of those blue ribbons.
Fallacies 6) Slippery slope Immediate steps should be taken to outlaw pornography once and for all. The continued manufacture and sale of pornographic material will almost certainly lead to an increase in sex-related crimes such as rape and incest. This in turn will gradually erode the moral fabric of society and result in an increase in crimes of all sorts. Eventually a complete disintegration of law and order will occur, leading in the end to the total collapse of civilization.
Fallacies 3) Irrelevant premises Equivocation Appeal to the Person Appeal to (unqualified) Authority Appeal to the Masses Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Pity Appeal to Force Appeal to Fear Appeal to Ignorance
Fallacies 7) Equivocation Death is the end of everything. So we should make it our end in life.
Fallacies 8) Appeal to the person Of course you want to look as fresh and beautiful as Taylor Swift. That means you will want to buy and use Cover Girl cosmetics because she says in an advertisement that she uses these products daily.
Fallacies 9) Appeal to (unqualified) authority The former Chairman of a. Tobacco Company, testified before Congress that tobacco is not an addictive substance and that smoking cigarettes does not produce any addiction. Therefore, we should believe him and conclude that smoking does not in fact lead to any addiction.
Fallacies 10) Appeal to the masses Everyone nowadays is on a low-carb diet. Therefore, you should go on a low-carb diet, too. Practically everybody believes in life after death. Therefore, you should believe in life after death, too.
Fallacies 11) Appeal to tradition Traditionally, professional sporting events have been preceded by the national anthem. Therefore, professional sporting events should continue to be preceded by the national anthem.
Fallacies 12) Appeal to pity Taxpayer to judge: Your Honor, I admit that I declared thirteen children as dependents on my tax return, even though I have only two. But if you find me guilty of tax evasion, my reputation will be ruined. I’ll probably lose my job, my poor wife will not be able to have the operation that she desperately needs, and my kids will starve. Surely I am not guilty.
Fallacies 13) Appeal to force Secretary to boss: I deserve a raise in salary for the coming year. After all, you know how friendly I am with your wife, and I’m sure you wouldn’t want her to find out what’s been going on between you and that sexpot client of yours.
Fallacies 14) Appeal to ignorance People have been trying for centuries to provide conclusive evidence for the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that astrology is a lot of nonsense. People have been trying for centuries to disprove the claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude that the claims of astrology are true.
Fallacies 15) Attack on the person Television entertainer Bill Maher argues that religion is just a lot of foolish nonsense. But Maher is an arrogant, shameless, self-righteous pig. Obviously his arguments are not worth listening to.
Fallacies 16) Accident Freedom of speech is a constitutionally guaranteed right. Therefore, John Q. Radical should not be arrested for his speech that incited the riot last week.
Fallacies 17) Strawman The student status committee has presented us with an argument favoring alcohol privileges on campus. What do the students want? Is it their intention to stay boozed up from the day they enter as freshmen until the day they graduate? Do they expect us to open a bar for them? Or maybe a chain of bars all over campus? Such a proposal is ridiculous!
Fallacies 19) Red herring There is a good deal of talk these days about the need to eliminate pesticides from our fruits and vegetables. But many of these foods are essential to our health. Carrots are an excellent source of vitamin A, broccoli is rich in iron, and oranges and grapefruit have lots of vitamin C.
Exercise Identify kind of fallacy 1. Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling says we should take massive doses of vitamin C every day. Therefore massive does of vitamin C must be good for you. 2. You should believe in God because if you don’t you will go to hell. 3. Quartz crystals cure colds because after wearing a quartz crystal around my neck, my cold went away
Exercise Identify kind of fallacy 4. I believe in God because the Bible says that God exists, and I believe in the Bible because God wrote it. 5. Only men can speak rationally. No woman is a man. So, no woman can speak rationally.
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