Racism and Sexism In this lecture Discrimination Racism

  • Slides: 80
Download presentation
Racism and Sexism

Racism and Sexism

In this lecture… § § Discrimination Racism and sexism Merit and formal equality Equality

In this lecture… § § Discrimination Racism and sexism Merit and formal equality Equality of opportunity 2

Discrimination § We all discriminate for and against people. For example, it is perfectly

Discrimination § We all discriminate for and against people. For example, it is perfectly rational and reasonable to discriminate among applicants for a job to select only those who are the most qualified based on individual ability and merit. 3

Discrimination § However, there are irrational and unreasonable forms of discrimination, such as racism

Discrimination § However, there are irrational and unreasonable forms of discrimination, such as racism and sexism. § Treating a person in an unfavorable way simply because of that person’s race, sex, religion or sexual orientation is morally unjustified. 4

Discrimination § Discrimination involves differential (i. e. unequal) treatment of people. § Discrimination, as

Discrimination § Discrimination involves differential (i. e. unequal) treatment of people. § Discrimination, as a moral and social problem, can be defined as the unequal treatment, whether intentional or unintentional, of people on the basis of group identity rather than individual merit. 5

Discrimination § A ‘stereotype’ is a popular or ingrained belief about specific social groups

Discrimination § A ‘stereotype’ is a popular or ingrained belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. § Stereotyping involves making sweeping generalizations about a group of people by treating every member of the group as if they were all alike. 6

Discrimination § The trouble with stereotyping is that a characteristic may be typical of

Discrimination § The trouble with stereotyping is that a characteristic may be typical of a group of people, but it does not follow that every member of that group necessarily has that characteristic. 7

Discrimination § Consider physical strength. Men are typically stronger than women. Nevertheless, some women

Discrimination § Consider physical strength. Men are typically stronger than women. Nevertheless, some women are stronger than some men. § Even though women are typically more nurturing than men, it would still be likely that some men would be more nurturing than some women. 8

Discrimination § To guard against unfair treatment, it is necessary that we consider what

Discrimination § To guard against unfair treatment, it is necessary that we consider what characteristics an individual has rather than what is believed to be typical of the group to which he or she belongs. 9

Discrimination § Many people favor some groups over others because of unconscious stereotypes. §

Discrimination § Many people favor some groups over others because of unconscious stereotypes. § For example, gender stereotypes have been thought to be one of the causes of sexual inequality or the unfavorable treatment of women. 10

Discrimination ‘Women cannot be good political leaders. Why? Because there are not many female

Discrimination ‘Women cannot be good political leaders. Why? Because there are not many female political leaders. ’ Is there anything wrong with the above statement? 11

Discrimination § Unequal treatment of people on the basis of group membership or characteristics

Discrimination § Unequal treatment of people on the basis of group membership or characteristics can hardly be morally justified. § It is unfair and unjust, for example, to refuse to hire black people because of their skin color, or pay women less than men for comparable work. 12

Discrimination § On the other hand, treating people differently on the basis of factors

Discrimination § On the other hand, treating people differently on the basis of factors related to individual merit (such as talent, ability, academic qualification, or work experience) is not discrimination as it is commonly understood. 13

Discrimination § Freedom from discrimination is one of the universal human rights listed in

Discrimination § Freedom from discrimination is one of the universal human rights listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. § If everyone has a right to be free from discrimination, we all have a duty not to discriminate against others. 14

Discrimination § To sum up, discrimination is morally unacceptable because it violates basic human

Discrimination § To sum up, discrimination is morally unacceptable because it violates basic human rights and treats people unfairly on the basis of group identity rather individual merit. 15

Discrimination § Why is it unjust to treat some people more favorably than others

Discrimination § Why is it unjust to treat some people more favorably than others on irrelevant grounds? Is discrimination harmful not only to the victims but also to society as a whole? 16

Racism and sexism § Racism (discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity) and

Racism and sexism § Racism (discrimination on the basis of race or ethnicity) and sexism (discrimination on the basis of sex or gender) are two common forms of discrimination. 17

Racism and sexism § A distinction can be made between race and ethnicity. ‘Race’

Racism and sexism § A distinction can be made between race and ethnicity. ‘Race’ is a biological classification whereas ‘ethnicity’ is a social or cultural classification. § A similar distinction can be made between ‘sex’ (as a biological category) and ‘gender’ (as a social or cultural category). 18

Racism and sexism § Race, as a biological concept, is largely based on skin

Racism and sexism § Race, as a biological concept, is largely based on skin color and other anatomical characteristics. § Ethnicity, as a social construct, is a way of classifying people according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin or background. 19

Racism and sexism § Racism is the belief that [1] humans are divided into

Racism and sexism § Racism is the belief that [1] humans are divided into different races, [2] the characteristics possessed by some races make their members intrinsically more valuable than members of other races, and [3] the superior races have a right to dominate the inferior races. 20

Racism and sexism § Racism entails the inability or refusal to recognize the rights,

Racism and sexism § Racism entails the inability or refusal to recognize the rights, needs, dignity, or value of people of particular races or geographical origins. § Racism is also morally unacceptable because of its adverse social, economic and political consequences for those unjustly affected by it. 21

Racism and sexism § Racism can be either ‘personal’ or ‘institutional’. § ‘Personal racism’

Racism and sexism § Racism can be either ‘personal’ or ‘institutional’. § ‘Personal racism’ refers chiefly to the biased beliefs and discriminatory behavior of individuals towards certain racial groups. 22

Racism and sexism § ‘Institutional racism’ describes any kind of system of inequality based

Racism and sexism § ‘Institutional racism’ describes any kind of system of inequality based on race. § One of the results of institutional racism is the differential access to goods, services, and opportunities among different races. 23

Racism and sexism § In the United States, blacks (African Americans) have suffered more

Racism and sexism § In the United States, blacks (African Americans) have suffered more than 300 years of racism. § In the past, slavery as a form of institutional racism was justified on the grounds that blacks were incapable of acting as responsible agents, and therefore required the direction provided by their masters. 24

Racism and sexism § After the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery,

Racism and sexism § After the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery, legal segregation was introduced to insulate whites from contact with blacks. § Such prejudices and historical practices have unjustly limited the political, social and economic opportunities of African Americans. 25

Racism and sexism § Until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950 s and

Racism and sexism § Until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950 s and 1960 s, white domination over blacks was institutionalized and supported at all levels of government, by denying blacks their rights and opportunities. 26

Racism and sexism § Even today, the legacy of racism still permeates American society.

Racism and sexism § Even today, the legacy of racism still permeates American society. It can be witnessed, for example, in African Americans’ high rates of unemployment, poverty and incarceration, and in inequality of opportunities generally. 27

Racism and sexism § Educational, employment and promotional opportunities are still strongly influenced by

Racism and sexism § Educational, employment and promotional opportunities are still strongly influenced by race. § The infant mortality rate for blacks is more than double that for white children. Almost half of black children under the age of 6 are living in poverty. 28

Racism and sexism § Not many blacks can finish high school, and even fewer

Racism and sexism § Not many blacks can finish high school, and even fewer can make it to college or university. The dropout rate for black college students is higher than for white students. Compared to white students, black students are 20 percent less likely to complete college within a six-year period. 29

Racism and sexism § Blacks and other minorities typically earn only a fraction of

Racism and sexism § Blacks and other minorities typically earn only a fraction of what whites earn, and they tend to hold political offices far less often than their numbers in the general population should warrant. 30

Racism and sexism § ‘Racial profiling’ is the police practice of stopping, questioning, arresting,

Racism and sexism § ‘Racial profiling’ is the police practice of stopping, questioning, arresting, and/or searching someone solely on the basis of the person’s race or ethnicity. § Many in the law enforcement authorities in the United States argue that racial profiling is both effective and necessary simply because crime rates are higher in some communities. 31

Racism and sexism § Is racial profiling a form of unjustified discrimination because it

Racism and sexism § Is racial profiling a form of unjustified discrimination because it involves treating people differently on the basis of their skin color? § Is it unfair to blacks that they are subject to more police searches and arrests than whites? 32

Racism and sexism § ‘Sexism’ refers to anything (attitudes, behavior, institutions, etc. ) that

Racism and sexism § ‘Sexism’ refers to anything (attitudes, behavior, institutions, etc. ) that creates, constitutes, promotes, or sustains an unjustifiable distinction between the sexes. 33

Racism and sexism § Sexism typically involves [1] false beliefs about people because of

Racism and sexism § Sexism typically involves [1] false beliefs about people because of their sex, or devaluing them because of this, and [2] social, political or economic institutions that seek to legitimize the power of men over women. 34

Racism and sexism § By attributing inferiority to the capacities, abilities and dispositions of

Racism and sexism § By attributing inferiority to the capacities, abilities and dispositions of women, sexists deny that women should be granted the same rights and moral status, or treated with the same respect, as men. 35

Racism and sexism § Some organizations, for example, may carry on a tradition that

Racism and sexism § Some organizations, for example, may carry on a tradition that excludes women from high-paying work. Employers may unfairly judge female employees by their gender rather than individual merit or qualifications. 36

Racism and sexism § ‘Socialization’ is a learning process by which values, goals, and

Racism and sexism § ‘Socialization’ is a learning process by which values, goals, and roles are acquired. Women and men are socialized differently. § ‘Gender roles’ are socially and culturally defined roles that individuals are expected to perform. They affect the way individuals think of themselves and how others thinks of them. 37

Racism and sexism § ‘Gender role socialization’ is the process by which males and

Racism and sexism § ‘Gender role socialization’ is the process by which males and females learn to display behavior considered appropriate for their own sex or gender. § Women are usually expected to take care of the housework, the child care, and the general emotional welfare of their husbands and children. 38

Racism and sexism § Economically, women are substantially worse off than men. Women do

Racism and sexism § Economically, women are substantially worse off than men. Women do not receive any pay for the work that is done in the home. As members of the labor force their wages are significantly lower than those paid to men, even when they are engaged in similar work and have similar educational backgrounds. 39

Racism and sexism § John Stuart Mill, perhaps the first modern philosopher to stand

Racism and sexism § John Stuart Mill, perhaps the first modern philosopher to stand up for gender equality, argued that since women had not been provided with adequate educational and employment opportunities, what was needed was a social transformation that would give them the levels of access usually accorded to men. 40

Racism and sexism § Mill thought that the opportunities offered to women and men

Racism and sexism § Mill thought that the opportunities offered to women and men should be based on a perfect equality of opportunity. § Women, according to Mill, should be allowed to win their social positions through fair and open competition. 41

Racism and sexism § The 1970 s saw the beginning of the modern women’s

Racism and sexism § The 1970 s saw the beginning of the modern women’s movement, along with an unprecedented influx of women into the workforce, higher education, and the professions. § Changes in the labor market and the Civil Rights Movement combined to produce a vocal feminist movement. 42

Racism and sexism § For example, the principle of ‘equal pay for equal work’

Racism and sexism § For example, the principle of ‘equal pay for equal work’ – the notion that a woman doing the same job as a man deserves the same pay – has been championed to promote the social and economic status of women. 43

Racism and sexism § Women have sought equality with men in the workplace, in

Racism and sexism § Women have sought equality with men in the workplace, in education, and in public life generally. § At the same time, they remain the primary child-care providers, which places them at a disadvantage in terms of advancement in their careers. 44

Racism and sexism § Even today, managerial and executive positions are still predominantly filled

Racism and sexism § Even today, managerial and executive positions are still predominantly filled by men. § It is estimated that men still represent over 90 percent of senior executive positions in the largest corporations of the United States. 45

Racism and sexism § Most firefighters are male. Do you think that the recruitment

Racism and sexism § Most firefighters are male. Do you think that the recruitment process of firefighters involves unfair discrimination against women? Are there any justifications for favoring male applicants over female applicants? 46

Merit and formal equality § As noted earlier, racism, sexism and other forms of

Merit and formal equality § As noted earlier, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination are not morally justified because race, sex, nationality, etc. are irrelevant to how people should be treated. 47

Merit and formal equality § Racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination all make

Merit and formal equality § Racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination all make the same mistake of judging an individual in terms of group identity – people are treated differently not because of differences in individual merit, but because of some ways in which they are classified. 48

Merit and formal equality § Another reason why racism and sexism is unjust and

Merit and formal equality § Another reason why racism and sexism is unjust and unfair is that unequal treatment is often the result of the concentration of political, social and economic power and advantage in the hands of the dominant race or gender. 49

Merit and formal equality § The principle of ‘equal respect for persons’: A basic

Merit and formal equality § The principle of ‘equal respect for persons’: A basic assumption of common morality is that every person has equal intrinsic value, that each person’s interests and well-being are equally important, and that everyone should be treated with equal respect. 50

Merit and formal equality According to the principle of equal respect for persons, everyone

Merit and formal equality According to the principle of equal respect for persons, everyone is entitled to equal rights and equal opportunity simply by virtue of being a person, regardless of class, race, sex, religion, nationality, culture, ability, sexual orientation, and so on. 51

Merit and formal equality Does the principle of equal respect for persons imply that

Merit and formal equality Does the principle of equal respect for persons imply that we must always treat everyone equally? Is it morally justifiable to treat some people more favorably than others under some circumstances? 52

Merit and formal equality The principle of ‘formal equality’: It is unjust to treat

Merit and formal equality The principle of ‘formal equality’: It is unjust to treat people differently in ways that deny to some of them significant social benefits unless we can show that there is a difference between them that is relevant to the differential treatment. 53

Merit and formal equality Considerations of equality imply that unequal treatment is morally unacceptable

Merit and formal equality Considerations of equality imply that unequal treatment is morally unacceptable unless it can be justified on rational and relevant grounds. For unequal treatment to be morally justified, we must show or prove that certain relevant differences exist that justify treating people differently in socially significant ways. 54

Merit and formal equality § It is morally wrong to discriminate on the bases

Merit and formal equality § It is morally wrong to discriminate on the bases of race and sex, but it is perfectly acceptable to treat people differently on the basis of individual merit (e. g. desirable qualities such physical strength, intelligence, skills and talents, academic qualification, work experience, etc. ). 55

Merit and formal equality The term ‘merit’ (qualifications) can be used to refer to

Merit and formal equality The term ‘merit’ (qualifications) can be used to refer to those relevant factors for treating some persons more favorably than others. What counts as relevant merit may vary in different contexts; for example, different jobs may have different requirements. 56

Merit and formal equality The skills, abilities, and knowledge that make someone a good

Merit and formal equality The skills, abilities, and knowledge that make someone a good construction worker are not the same as those that make someone a good doctor or a good fitness instructor. The person who merits one job likely does not merit another. 57

Merit and formal equality If merit is what makes a person qualify for a

Merit and formal equality If merit is what makes a person qualify for a particular academic or professional position, then race and sex are unlikely to count as relevant merit. From students to teachers, and from lawyers to accountants, doing well has almost nothing to do with one’s race or gender. 58

Merit and formal equality Therefore, racial or sexual discrimination in the school and in

Merit and formal equality Therefore, racial or sexual discrimination in the school and in the workplace is not morally justified because it involves treating some people more favorably than others on the basis of group identity (which is irrelevant) rather than individual merit (which is relevant). 59

Merit and formal equality § Differential treatment is unjust if some people are treated

Merit and formal equality § Differential treatment is unjust if some people are treated unfavorably simply because of their race or gender. § To deny some people opportunities in education or employment, or to treat them less favorably without a relevant reason, is to wrong them by treating them unfairly. 60

Merit and formal equality § ‘Formal equality’ requires that individuals be treated equally, unless

Merit and formal equality § ‘Formal equality’ requires that individuals be treated equally, unless they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involved. § There must be relevant grounds for differential treatment. It is unjust and unfair to favor one person over another for irrelevant reasons. 61

Merit and formal equality For example, if Jack and Jill both do the same

Merit and formal equality For example, if Jack and Jill both do the same work, and there are no relevant differences between them or the work they are doing, then in justice they should be paid the same wage. 62

Merit and formal equality § If Jack is paid more than Jill simply because

Merit and formal equality § If Jack is paid more than Jill simply because he is male, or because he is white, then we have an injustice – a form of unfair discrimination – because race and sex are not relevant to normal work situations. 63

Merit and formal equality § According to the principle of formal equality, a paraplegic

Merit and formal equality § According to the principle of formal equality, a paraplegic (a person suffering from paralysis of the lower half of the body and thus unable to walk) should be treated differently because disability is a relevant factor that requires special treatment. It is appropriate for us to pay special attention to the needs of the disabled. 64

Merit and formal equality § Do you think that victims of discrimination, such as

Merit and formal equality § Do you think that victims of discrimination, such as blacks and women, should also be given preferential (favorable) treatment when they apply for jobs or college admission? Is ‘victimhood’ a relevant factor for differential treatment? 65

Equality of opportunity § Formal equality, as mentioned earlier, requires that desirable positions –

Equality of opportunity § Formal equality, as mentioned earlier, requires that desirable positions – such as job vacancies or university places – be filled by the most qualified individuals. § These positions should not be assigned to less qualified people on irrelevant grounds. 66

Equality of opportunity § Racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination contradicts the notion

Equality of opportunity § Racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination contradicts the notion of formal equality by imposing artificial barriers that prevented qualified individuals from attaining the educational or employment opportunities they deserve. 67

Equality of opportunity Thus, the principle of ‘formal equality of opportunity’ [1] requires that

Equality of opportunity Thus, the principle of ‘formal equality of opportunity’ [1] requires that individuals be evaluated for positions strictly on the basis of their qualifications for those positions, and [2] forbids all discrimination on the basis of factors irrelevant to filling those positions. 68

Equality of opportunity Proponents of formal equality of opportunity maintain that all artificial barriers

Equality of opportunity Proponents of formal equality of opportunity maintain that all artificial barriers to opportunities must be removed. Anti-discrimination laws have to be enforced to ensure that no one will be denied access to opportunities on irrelevant grounds such as race or gender. 69

Equality of opportunity § The benefit of equality of opportunity is to bring fairness

Equality of opportunity § The benefit of equality of opportunity is to bring fairness to the selection process for positions in corporations, associations, and universities, etc. § Evaluation of applicants should be based on consideration of the qualifications deemed relevant to successful performance in the position applied for. 70

Equality of opportunity § An ‘equal opportunity’ policy typically includes measures to ensure: 1.

Equality of opportunity § An ‘equal opportunity’ policy typically includes measures to ensure: 1. equal access to opportunities 2. open and fair competition for such opportunities 3. consistent rules and standards in the assessment and selection process 71

Equality of opportunity is often seen as a major aspect of a ‘meritocracy’, a

Equality of opportunity is often seen as a major aspect of a ‘meritocracy’, a system which rewards such factors as individual intelligence, knowledge or other criteria believed to confer merit. 72

Equality of opportunity § A prime example of a meritocratic system is one that

Equality of opportunity § A prime example of a meritocratic system is one that uses standardized test scores or public examination results as the main criterion for college admissions. 73

Equality of opportunity § Academic merit can be seen as any skills, talents, abilities

Equality of opportunity § Academic merit can be seen as any skills, talents, abilities and other traits or characteristics that make someone a good learner. § Test scores, examination results, and recommendations are usually taken as standard indicators of academic merit. 74

Equality of opportunity § Blacks and other minority applicants often do poorly in standardized

Equality of opportunity § Blacks and other minority applicants often do poorly in standardized tests. Does it imply that the use of test scores as a criterion of admission is a form of institutional racism? Wealthier students can pay for preparatory classes that help them do well in those tests. Does it mean that the admissions system is biased against poor students? 75

Equality of opportunity § Critics of meritocracy argue that a meritocratic system may not

Equality of opportunity § Critics of meritocracy argue that a meritocratic system may not be necessarily fair to everyone. § Some individuals may find it difficult to compete with others for opportunities because of poverty, discrimination, and a host of other personal, social and economic factors. 76

Equality of opportunity § On this view, what is needed is not formal equality

Equality of opportunity § On this view, what is needed is not formal equality of opportunity, but ‘fair equality of opportunity’. § According the principle of fair equality of opportunity, no one should be advantaged or disadvantaged by their skin color, gender, or their parent’s wealth, occupation or connections. 77

Equality of opportunity § Special government efforts are needed to help the disadvantaged to

Equality of opportunity § Special government efforts are needed to help the disadvantaged to overcome obstacles of prejudice and poverty. § Policy measures should be taken to assist and empower women, minorities and other disadvantaged social groups so that they will not be excluded from access to opportunities. 78

Equality of opportunity § Fair equality of opportunity requires that active steps be taken

Equality of opportunity § Fair equality of opportunity requires that active steps be taken to equalize opportunity, for example, through the provision of better public education, subsidized housing and health care, social security benefits, and remedial measures such as training programs and affirmative action. 79

Equality of opportunity § Do you think that educational and employment opportunities should be

Equality of opportunity § Do you think that educational and employment opportunities should be allocated, through open competition, to the most qualified individuals? Is there any justification for setting aside some of those opportunities for the disadvantaged even though they might not be qualified for those positions? 80