Qualitative Research Methods Theres more to it than

Qualitative Research Methods There’s more to it than that meets the eye!

Definition: � Definition: Qualitative research is used to gain insight into people’s attitudes, behavior, value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or life styles etc. � It is an in-depth study about human beings.

� Qualitative research is concerned with '. . . developing explanations of social phenomena. . . ' › › The world in which we live Why things are the way they are Concerned with social aspects of our world Seeks to answer questions about

› Qualitative questions: �How �Why �What

Qualitative research’s base/roots are � Anthropology � Philosophy � Sociology

Relation to theory

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Elements of the Research Process Deductive thinking (Quantitative) THEORY HYPOTHESIS OBSERVATION CONFIRMATION

Elements of the Research Process (Cont. ) Inductive thinking (Qualitative) OBSERVATION PATTERNS HYPOTHESIS THEORY

IDEAL QUANTITATIVE Research process is deductive. Measure objective facts. Focus on variables. Firewall between research process and researchers’ values. Cross-contextual. Many cases. QUALITATIVE Research process is inductive. Document social reality, meaning is constructed. Focus on in-depth meaning. Values are present & explicit (empathy). Contextual dependence. Few cases.

IDEAL QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Statistical analysis Thematic analysis Highly structured research process. Loosely structured research process. Particularistic, specific Holistic perspective Separation from data Intimacy with data Generalize to population Generalization to properties and contexts

Qualitative Methods When should I use qualitative methods? � When variables cannot be quantified � When variables are best understood in their natural settings � When variables are studied over real time � When studying intimate details of roles, processes, and groups � When the paramount objective is “understanding”

Qualitative Methods What skills do I need? � Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue. � Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values. � Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listening � Must be open to embracing multiple realities. � Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports. Source: (Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

Limitations of qualitative studies: No universal rules and methods for analyzing data. � The absence of standard procedure makes it difficult how to explain and present the findings and replicate it. � Enormous data must be organized to make sense of pages and pages of narrative information. � How to reduce the data to make a final report. � Fluency with language. (especially written) �

For credibility of studies you look for: � � � � � For credibility of Quantitative studies you look for: Validity Reliability In Qualitative research you look for: Credibility – Member checking, peer debriefing Transferability – Meaning to other similar situations Dependability – Triangulation Conformability – Auditable (Lincoln and Guba 1985)

Common designs used in qualitative research: � Phenomenology � Ethnography � Grounded � Narrative theory

Qualitative Methods Before collecting data, you have to determine what you want to accomplish. Tight versus Loose Design Ask yourself: › › Design How much time do I have? What resources are available? What is the purpose of the study? In what am I really interested?

Qualitative Methods Choose your unit of analysis. � Individuals › Certain experiences › Experiences in particular settings › Identities such as nurse leaders, nurse role models… � Groups › Types of people such as cancer patients, Nursing students. › Those in one setting versus another. RNM Nurses in Community etc… › Organizations Design

Qualitative Methods Qualitative research quickly exhausts resources and time. Limit the amount of data collected. It’s not the size that matters, it’s what you do with the data. � Be very clear about the research focus › Write down your foggy ideas and then get more specific. �Concentrate on most important issues and not others. �Start writing specific questions you want to answer. �Now get even more specific…reduce Design

The main methods for collecting qualitative data are: � Individual interviews � Focus groups � Observations � Action Research

Sampling Plan Data Collection � Define sampling boundaries: › › � Design Space Time Social position Context Record nothing that is not in your sampling parameters

Sampling: Qualitative versus Quantitative Sampling Select Elements Representative of Target Population Generalize from sample to population Make claims about the population Test theories within population Qualitative Sampling Select Elements Representative of Research Focus Generate Detailed and Subjective Understanding Answer research questions Build theories

Sampling � Make choices that narrow or delimit research focus and activities to a level that › A researcher’s brain can handle › Can be done in a reasonable amount of time › Is within a reasonable budget � Seek exposure to topic-related information � Focus only on information directly useful for the research › Samples should be small, not large � Sampling decisions are made throughout data collection

Tools Interviews � Interviews can be � Unstructured � › Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews › They have very little structure at all � Semi structured › Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused interviews › A series of open ended / broad questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover

� Good quality interview involves: � Thought � Preparation � The development of the interview schedule � Conducting and analyzing the interview data with care and consideration

Focus groups Characteristics of a focus group: Recommended size of group is 6 - 10. Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the investigation. � Members should have something in common which is important to the investigation � Groups can either be put together or existing groups can be used - it is always useful to be mindful of the group dynamics of both situations � The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions � � �

� This method requires the researcher to use a range of skills: � group skills � facilitating � moderating � listening/observing � analysis

Observation may take place in natural settings and involve the researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening. � Strengths of observation � Can offer a flavor for what is happening � Can give an insight into the bigger picture � Can demonstrate sub-groups � Can be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research �

Techniques for collecting data through observation � Written descriptions � Video recording � Photographs and artifacts

Documentation � Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information - a local paper, information on a notice board, administrative policies and procedures. . . etc previous research, even.

Data Text is generally collected from or in the form of… › Field notes -- Newspaper or magazine stories › Interviews (recorded and transcribed) › Focus groups -- Web pages › Audio & video tapes (transcribed and described) › Copies of documents › Narrative descriptions › Diaries -- Photographs (described)

ANALYSIS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Read Data, develop ideas and feelings Code Data, tag items with same meaning using a unique code Search and extract instances of codes Identify patterns among codes (pattern coding) THEMES Create figures, tables, or descriptions of patterns

Analysis � Process of Qualitative Analysis: › Data Reduction › Data Display › Conclusion Drawing and Verification

Analysis Collect Data Target Text Read, Think, Feel, (Re)Cod e, Reduce Coded Data Group, Organize, Reduce Final Report Write, Reduce Data Displays

Coding

Coding What is coding? � In qualitative analysis, coding is the process of identifying categories and meanings in text, creating and applying a name or code to each, and systematically marking similar strings of text with the same code name. � Coding permits systematic retrieval of categories and meanings during analysis. Codes help researchers identify patterns in data.

Coding � One codes only relevant data (Not all text must be coded to complete the project) � Codes may be based on: Actions, Behaviors, Topics, Ideas, Concepts, Terms, Phrases, Keywords, and so forth � Coding is purposeful interpretation, with mindful reflection on the meanings of the persons, context, interactions, statements, assumptions, and so forth

Coding An example of “old school” coding Source: http: //onlineqda. hud. ac. uk/Intro_QDA/phpechopage_title. Online. QDA-Examples_QDA. php

Coding Sources of codes (typically both): 1. A priori codes—expected, looked for › › Previous research Previous theory Research question Your intuition of the data or setting 2. Grounded codes—discovered (suspend ideas about the subject and let the data determine codes)

Coding � It helps if code names are meaningful. � When new relevant content is discovered, a new code is created. � Codes �A may evolve string of text may contain more than one code.

Coding � Codes must be consistently applied � Keeping a list of codes helps to: › Identify the content of each code, and › Reveal the contents of the text. � Codes should be grouped in some form (e. g. , related clusters) to advance analysis

Coding http: //www. qualitative-research. net/index. php/fqs/article/view/209/461

Displays Making sense of the data

Displays � There are numerous legitimate ways to move from codes to final narrative, but core among them is systematic work and adherence to logic. � Systematic analysis is advanced when codes are put into “data displays” which reflect the researcher’s judgments about the data � Data displays link various codes and help to build themes

Displays Thematic network of You. Tube comments about Borat Source: http: //journals. culture-communication. unimelb. edu. au/platform/yecrea_2011_kaprans. html

Displays � Such arrangements help researchers: 1. “dimensionalize, ” or recognize dimensions of similar thoughts or � E. g. , thoughts about how to appear masculine: � Clothes Presence � Short hair � Plain shoes � Shirt with collar -- Confidence -- Taking up space 2. Connect codes in more sophisticated ways 3. Document patterns in “user-friendly” ways (never rely on memory)

Displays � Relationships between codes become more apparent as codes are grouped � Themes should be explored � Exploration of themes is analysis. The discoveries should be written down. These eventually (with very heavy and serious editing) turn into your written text. › Why do some codes co-occur? › Why are some dimensions related to other codes while others are not? › Are some codes linked to particular emotions?

Analysis � Process of Qualitative Analysis: › Data Reduction › Data Display › Conclusion Drawing and Verification

Drawing Conclusions and Verification � As one creates and views displays, the salient components of meaning and activities become apparent. � Research may be: › Descriptive: Represents the data (meanings, observations) to readers in such a way that they will “understand” what the researcher “sees” in the data. › Causal: Links concepts in the data together to explain observed meanings or phenomena, and to write in such a way that readers will “understand” what the researcher “sees. ” � This stage relies very heavily on logical evaluation and systematic description

Drawing Conclusions and Verification � The researcher WRITES what he or she sees as logical descriptions of themes � The researcher always refers back to the data displays and raw data as descriptions or causal statements are made. › Systematic, organized, and good coding and notes will really pay off at this point, allowing efficient, accurate access to data � Conclusions are made through this process

Drawing Conclusions and Verification � Articles and reports often include quotes. They are not the text “speaking for itself. ” � Quotes are used for: › › › Evidence Explanation Illustration Deepening understanding Giving participants a voice Enhancing readability

Drawing Conclusions and Verification In the end, like good quantitative research, good qualitative research gives a portrayal of the human experience that is as accurate as possible, but which always has limitations.

Qualitative Methods It is often difficult to plan qualitative research Group Discussion: � � › › Spend several minutes generating ideas for a qualitative research study. What are you going to study and why? Create a plan for: � Sampling � How will you determine whether your sample is representative of a target group? � Data Collection � Data Analysis � How will you evaluate causality? � How will you write about or present your findings? Introduction