PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2 Abnormality Deviations from social norms

PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2

Abnormality Deviations from social norms -> Behaviour considered antisocial, undesirable majority society members. Society has social norms which are standards of acceptance set by a social group. E. g. politeness, rude is socially deviant. Limitations of deviation from social norms -> If we define abnormality deviation from social norms we open doors to definitions based prevailing social norms and attitudes. Allows mental health professionals to classify those who transgress against social attitudes mentally ill. Szasz, mental illness concept exclude non conformist. -> Judging deviance depends on the context of behaviour. E. g. wearing nothing on a beach compared to a formal meeting or classroom. Making judgements depends on the degree of behaviour. E. g. Being rude is deviant behaviour but not evidence of mental disturbances unless excessive. Therefore no fine line between what is deviant or simple harmless. -> Cultural relativism. No universal standards or rules labelling behaviour as abnormal. What is seen to be a diagnosable disorder for a psychologist in the UK may be different for a psychologist from another country.

Failure to function adequately ->Abnormality judged in terms of being able to cope. E. g. Feeling depressed but able to cope with general day to day living. If it interferes, one may label their own behaviour as abnormal. Limitations of failure to function adequately -> To determine concept, someone has to decide if this is the case. And individual who cant cope may be considered abnormal however an individual may be content with situation and unaware their not coping. It is rather those uncomfortable with behaviour who judge abnormality. E. g. Schizophrenics believe they don't have problem, erratic behaviour causes distress to others. -> Dysfunctional behaviour can be adaptive and functional for individual. E. g. Cross dressers make a living out of it, however transvestites are generally regarded as abnormal. -> Cultural relativism. Failure to function criterion is likely to result in different diagnoses when applied to different cultures. The standard of one culture is being used to measure another. May explain why lower class and non white patients diagnosed with disorders because their lifestyles aren't traditional.

Deviation from Ideal mental health-> We define physical illness, as an absence of physical health. E. g. Blood pressure. Same concept can be used to define mental health. Jahoda argues an absence of six categories indicates abnormality and potential disorder : Self attitudes (high self-esteem) Selfactualisation (extent develops full capabilities) Integration (not able to cope with stressful situations) Autonomy (independent) Accurate perception of reality and Mastery of environment (able to love, adjust, solve problems) Limitations of deviation from social norms -> According to criteria, most of us abnormal to some degree. How many do we need to be lacking to judged as abnormal? -> Physical illness, have physical disorders. E. g. A viral infection. Therefore are easy to detect and diagnose. Mental illness doesn't, therefore unlikely we can diagnose mental abnormality in the same way as physical abnormality. -> Cultural relativism. Criteria is culture bound. If we apple to non western or middle class social groups, we would find high abnormality. E. g. the self actualization is applicable to individualist not collectivist cultures where individual strive for the good of the community not self centred goals.

Biological Approach to Psychopathology Assumes mental disorders are related to some change in the body, like physical disorders. Such changes caused by physical factors. Genes and abnormal biochemistry & neuranotomy -> Genes determine level of hormones & neurotransmitters in brain (biochemistry). High serotonin (neurotransmitter) linked with anxiety and low has been found in depressed individuals. Genes determine brain structure (neuratonomy). Research shown schizophrenics have enlarged ventricles, indicating shrinkage of brain tissue. Viral infections -> Research suggest that some disorders E. g. Schizophrenia are linked to exposure to certain viruses in the womb. Torrey found that many mothers of schizophrenics contracted influenza in pregnancy. Genetic inheritance -> Research suggest genes responsible for abnormality, passed from parent to child (product of evolutionary adaptations in our ancestors). Tested using twins and a concordance rate. High concordance rates in schizophrenia. Methods of Investigation -> Laboratory experiments and correlation studies Limitations of Biological model -> It’s inhumane. Szasz argues mental illness has no physical basis, therefore should not be thought in same way physical disorders. Mental illness invented as a form of social control. -> Available evidence doesn't support simple cause and effect link between mental illness such as schizophrenia and association with an excess amount of neurotransmitter dopamine. However some studies shown reduce levels of dopamine in schizophrenics meaning simultaneous deficiencies causing it. -> No evidence that mental disorders are caused by genetic inheritance. Concordance rates are never 100%. Gottesman and Shields reviewed concordance levels in twins and rates where only 50%. Individuals develop susceptibility to the disorder (diathesis) but only develops if the individuals exposed to stressful life conditions.

Biological Therapies: Drugs and ECT Antipsychotics and antidepressants (Drugs)-> Antipsychotics (chlorpromazine) combat schizophrenia by blocking action of neurotransmitter dopamine in brain by binding to it and stopping stimulation of dopamine receptors. Atypical antipsychotics act by temporarily occupying dopamine receptors and then rapidly dissociating, allowing normal dopamine transmission. -> Neurotransmitter serotonin when low is linked to depression. To terminate their action, neurotransmitter are reabsorbed into nerve ending and broken down by enzymes. Antidepressants work by reducing absorption rate or blocking enzymes that break down serotonin. Strengths and Limitations of Drugs -> Chemotherapies do work. WHO reported relapse rates were highest (55%) when schizophrenics were treated with placebos, (25%) with chlorpromazine (Antipsychotic) and 2%-21% when chlorpromazine was combine with family intervention. -> It requires little effort from user as all they have to do is remember to take it, compared to otherapies such as psychoanalysis. -> Effectiveness may be due to psychological effect rather than chemical. Kirsch et al reviewed 38 studies of antidepressants and found that patients receiving placebos faired almost as those getting real drugs. -> Drugs temporarily tackle symptoms, stop taking them and effectiveness ceases. It’s preferable to seek treatment that addresses the problems itself rather than only symptoms. -> All chemotherapies have side effects, some more disabling than other. For example, some may cause anxiety, sexual dysfunction, insomnia, nausea and suicidal thoughts. Side effects cause chemotherapy to fail as patients decide not to take them. Electroconvulsive therapy -> The administration of controlled electric current, electrodes placed on scalp, that induces a convulsive seizure which can be effective in relieving an episode of major depression. ECT alters the way chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) are acting in the brain so helps bring about recovery. -> How it works? It can be unilateral (one electrode)or bilateral (two electrodes). Electrodes placed about temple of non dominant side of brain and middle of forehead. Patient is injected with a barbiturate which causes unconsciousness, oxygen is also administered. Electric current (0. 6 amps) lasting half a second passes through brain cause a seizure. Strengths and Limitations of ECT -> ECT can save lives, supporters claim it is effective particularly with depression, which works when other treatments have not. Particularly when depression is so severe that it could lead to suicide. -> Comer states that 60 - 70 % of ECT patients improve after the treatment. -> Sackiem et al found that 84% of the patients they studied relapsed within six months of having ECT. -> Studies have compared standard ECT with sham ECT (where the patient has exactly the same thing done, but no electric current is used and no fit). Patients who had real ECT were much more likely to recover than sham. However patients receiving sham treatment recovered too, suggesting attention patient receives plays an important role in recovery. -> According to Datto, possible physical side effect of ECT include impaired memory cardiovascular changes and headaches. The DOLT report found psychological side effects such as permanent fear and anxiety. -> Unethical. A meta analysis of 17 papers covering 134 testimonies by Rose et al, found that approximately half those receiving ECT felt they were given insufficient information about how the procedure works and one third felt coerced into having the treatment.

Psychodynamic Approach to Psychopathology Freud believed that the origins of mental disorder lie in the unresolved conflicts of childhood which are unconscious. Mental illness outcome of psychological conflicts. Unresolved conflicts -> Conflicts between the id (innate drive to seek immediate satisfaction), ego (rational part of personality) , superego (embodies are conscience and sense of right or wrong) create anxiety. The ego protects itself with various defence mechanism (Ego defences). These defence could be cause of disturbed behaviour if they are overused. Early experiences-> In childhood ego is not developed enough to deal with traumas and therefore they are repressed. E. g. , a child may experience the death of a parent early in line and repress associated feelings. Present losses may cause individual to re-experience earlier loss which can lead to depression. Unconscious motivations -> Ego defences such as repression and regression exert pressure through unconsciously motivated behaviour. Unconscious consist of memories & information that hard to bring into conscious awareness. However unconscious mind exerts a powerful effect on behaviour, can lead to distress as person understand why they are acting in a particular way. Method of Investigation - > Case studies and experiments. Limitations of Biological model -> Abstract concepts such as id, ego and superego are difficult to define and research. Actions motivated by them operate at an unconscious level, there is no way to know for certain that they are occurring. -> Freud's theory is undoubtly sexually unbalanced and he accepts that it was less developed for women based on cultural bias of Victorian society and Freud was a male. -> Theory difficult to prove or disapprove. If an individual behaves in the manner predicted by Freud, considered to be supportive of theory. However, an individual could be behaving as a consequence of their defence mechanism. E. g. Acting oppositely, hiding real behaviour.

Psychological Therapies: Psychoanalysis-> It is based on the idea that individuals are unaware of many factors that cause behaviour, emotions and general mental health. These factors are created on an unconscious level and are the result of memories & unresolved conflict. This attempts to trace these factors to their origins and help individuals deal with them. -> Free association, the patient is encourages to express thoughts as they occur even if they are irrelevant. The value of this technique shows associations between thoughts caused by unconscious forces. Therapists interprets these connection, reveal conflicts and bring back memories into consciousness that had been repressed. -> Therapist interpretation, this is where therapist listens carefully as patient talks, looking for cues and draws conclusions about the cause of problem. E. g. therapist looks for signs of resistance (changing the subject) or transference (recreating feelings onto therapist) to gain an insight into the unconscious mind. -> Work through, patient tends to meet up with therapist 4 or 5 times a week. Together same issues are examined over and over again in an attempt to gain clarity of their neurotic behaviour. Strengths and Limitations of Psychoanalysis-> Bergin analysed data from 10, 000 patients and found 80% of the patients found treatment beneficial. -> Tscuschke et al reported that the longer the treatment lasts, the more effective it will be. -> Ignores individual differences between individuals by imposing specific theories on them. -> Some therapist are not helping patients recover repressed memories but are planting false memories of sexual abuse or alien abduction. Loftus argues there is little evidence that a patient can reliably recall early memories that have been repressed. -> Unethical. Painful memories brought to the conscious mind. False memories and force termination may provoke negative reactions from patients.

Cognitive Approach to Psychopathology This model assumes that thinking, expectations and attitudes direct behaviour. Mental illness, therefore is the result of inappropriate disordered thinking. Faulty and irrational thinking prevents the individual from behaving adaptively. Ellis A-B-C model -> A - activating event ( the sight of a large dog) B – belief (rational e. g. the dog is harmless, irrational e. g. The dog will attack me) C – consequence ( rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions e. g. Amusement, irrational can lead to unhealthy emotions e. g. Fear or panic) Individual is in control -> Individuals are the cause of their own behaviour because they are in control of their own thoughts. Abnormality is the cause of faulty control. Method of Investigation - > Experiments and meta analysis. Evaluation of Cognitive model-> It blames the patient and overlooks situational factors that can occur. E. g. Not considering how life events or family problems may have contributed to mental disorder. -> It is not clear if it’s consequence or the cause comes first. E. g. Depressed individuals develop a negative way of thinking because of the depression rather than the other way round. Also it thought that faulty thinking vulnerability factor for abnormality. -> Not all irrational beliefs are ‘irrational’. Its suggested that depressive realist tend to see thing for what they are. Alloy and Abrahamson found depressed people gave a more accurate likelihood of disasters (sad but wiser effect). -> Unlike the behaviorist approach which argues that people do not have free will and that the environment determines their behavior by making them behave in certain ways, the cognitive model allows for processes such as decision making and choice. This makes the model more acceptable to people as the idea of not having free will is an uncomfortable one.

Cognitive Therapy: CBT - REBT Rational emotive behavioural therapy -> A cognitive behavioural treatment that helps people change dysfunctional emotions and behaviours by making them aware of self-defeating beliefs and modifying theses in order to remove unwanted states. -> How it works? REBT challenges these irrational beliefs by encouraging to dispute beliefs. Patients encouraged to use Logical dispute ( does thinking this way make sense? ) Empirical dispute ( where is the proof that this belief is accurate? ) Pragmatic dispute ( how is this belief likely to benefit me) Patient moves from catastrophising to more rational thinking. Strengths and Limitations of REBT - > A meta analysis, Engels et al concluded that REBT is an effective treatment for a number of different types of disorders, including OCD and social phobia. -> REBT is not only useful for clinical populations (i. e. Mental disorders) but also useful for non clinical populations (e. g. People suffering a lack of assertiveness and exam anxiety) -> REBT fails to address irrational environment which still exist beyond therapeutic situations e. g. Marriage bully partners and job strains. As a result, such environments continue to produce and reinforce irrational thoughts and maladaptive behaviour. -> Doesn't always work and not always what people want. Ellis found that in some cases people simply do not want direct advice REBT practitioners tend to dispense. -> Unethical. Disputing irrational beliefs is the most commonly used therapeutic strategy in REBT. However, disputing what appears to be irrational beliefs to therapist may create moral problems for clients whom irrational beliefs are based on fundamental religious beliefs.

Behavioural Approach to Psychopathology Concentrates only on behaviours; the response a person makes to their environment. They focus their attention on the role of external events and behaviours causing abnormality. Conditioning and social learning theory -> Classical conditioning, the idea that we learn through association. E. g. a feared object is associated with fear or anxiety, which causes the conditioned stimulus to produce a fear response whenever the stimulus is encountered. -> Operant conditioning, the idea that we learn through the consequences of our actions. Psychological disorders occur when a maladaptive behaviour is rewarded or unpunished, as it can encourage someone to do this behaviour again. E. g. someone who goes on a diet may lose weight, causing attention from others, this could act as a reward, making someone more likely to lose weight and possibly lead to anorexia. ->Social Learning Theory. This is learning through observing a model, and imitating their behaviour. This depends on the observed consequences of their behaviour; vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Here abnormality can occur if someone observes the behaviour of someone else who shows a phobia. -> Learning environments : society provides deviant maladaptive models that children identify and imitate e. g. TV. Method of Investigation - > Experiments and animal studies. Limitations of Behavioural model -> It has a limited view of the factors that might cause abnormal behaviour. For example, autism and schizophrenia are difficult to explain them solely in terms of classical or operant conditioning. (explained through genetics) -> Conditioning theories of attaining of fear would have problems explaining why many people are unable to indentify an incident in past which led to traumatic conditioning, nor even to recall any contact with the feared object. -> The therapies do not provide long-lasting solution. This may be because symptoms are just the tip of the iceberg. It we remove the symptoms, the cause still remains, meaning the symptoms can resurface possible in another form (Symptom substitution). Suggesting symptoms are behavioural but not the cause.

Behavioural Therapies: Systematic Desensitisation Systematic desensitisation -> It is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy used to treat phobias and other behaviour problems involving anxiety. Client is gradually exposed to threatening situation in relaxed condition until anxiety reaction is extinguished. -> How it works? Patient taught how to relax muscles, therapist and patient together construct desensitisation (a series of imagined scenes each one causing a little more anxiety than the previous one) , visualises anxiety's which engaging in a competing relaxation process, once mastered move up one step in hierarchy, patient eventually masters feared situation. Strengths and Limitations of SD - > Behaviour therapies are quick and require less effort from patient compared to other psycho therapies where patient must play a more active part in treatment and therefore SD may be more suitable for treating certain groups e. g. those with learning difficulties. -> Research found SD to be successful for a range of anxiety disorder e. g. 75% of patients with phobias responded to SD. -> SD may appear to resolve problem but simply eliminating or suppressing symptoms may result in other symptoms resurfacing (symptom substitution). -> Ohman et al suggest that SD may not be effective in treating anxieties with an underlying evolutionary survival component e. g. Fear of dark or heights, than in treating phobias that have been acquired as a result of person experiences.

Stress Response Acute stress and sympathomedullary pathway (SAM)-> Acute stressors arouse the autonomic nervous system; divided into the parasympathetic branch (relaxation) sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight). SNS -> Releases noradrenalin to every organ in the body when animal is under threat, which causes increased heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output, pupil size, metabolic changes. Adrenal medulla -> Situated at the centre of gland. Neurons of SNS travel to the medulla, once activated releases adrenaline into the bloodstream, which affects the body’s psychological systems e. g. Boosting the supply of oxygen to brain or suppressing non emergence bodily processes such as digestion. SAM -> At the same time as the SNS, SAM alerts an animal through the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream which prepares them for the fight or flight response. It is regulated by SNS and adrenal medulla. Chronic stress and Pituitary adrenal system -> Controls levels of cortisol and other stress related hormones. AKA HPA. Less easy to achieve. Hypothalamus -> Higher centres of the brain passes a message to the hypothalamus. Activation of particular region, the paraventricular nucleus leads to the production of chemical messenger CRF into the bloodstream. Pituitary gland -> CRF causes the pituitary gland to produce and release adrenocorticotrophic hormone. ACTH is transport into the blood stream to its target side the adrenal glands located on top of kidneys. Adrenal cortex -> Cortisol (corticosteroids) released by the adrenal cortex have both negative effects ( impaired cognitive performance, high blood pressure, low immune system response) and positive effects (lower sensitivity to pain and burst of energy) on the body. Prolonged ACTH increases the size of the adrenal cortex to cop with cortisol production. Deficiency causes the adrenal cortex to shrink. Feedback -> 20 minutes for process to complete. It is efficient at regulating itself. Hypothalamus and pituitary gland have special receptors to monitor cortisol. It cortisol is high, they initiate a reduction of CRF and ACTH. Individual differences - > Taylor et al, men react with a fight or flight, women where a tend and befriend response. Oxytocin is hormone secreted in both men and women. It reduces cortisol response and creates faster recovery of acute stress. Male hormones reduce oxytocin whereas female amplify it.

Stress and Immune System Response Examination acute stress -> Keicolt-Glaser et conducted a natural experiment of the affect of acute stressors on immune system response. Blood samples where taken a month before and during exam period. Natural killer cell activity ( a major component in innate immune system response) had decline in second blood sample (during exam period). Short term predictable stressors increases a vulnerability to illness. -> Marucha et al tested the affect of acute stressors on the rate wounds heal. He inflicted a punch biopsy in the mouths of students during the summer holidays and three days before an exam. The wounds three days before the exam took 40% longer to heal than the ones in summer holidays. Relationship chronic stress -> Keicolt-Glaser et al tested the impact of interpersonal conflict on wound healing. Blister wounds on the arms of married couples healed more slowly after having discussion that were conflicting rather than supporting. -> Keicolt-Glaser et al compared women separated with matched married controls and found poor immune system functioning in those separated during the last year. -> Evans et al looked at the activity of an antibody Slg. A which coats the mucus surface of the mouth, lungs and stomach and helps protects against infections. Students were put under mild acute stress and Slg. A had increased however, during an exam period that stretched over few weeks, Slg. A had decreased suggesting that acute stressors enhance immune system functioning where are ongoing chronic stressors reduces it. Evaluation of stress and immune system -> Lazarus argues that the relationship between stress and illness is difficult to establish as health can be affected by different factors such as genetic and lifestyle influences. -> Health is stable and slow to change. It is difficult to demonstrate exposure to a particular stress has caused a change in health. -> To demonstrate a relationship between stress and long term health issues a continuous measurement overtime is needed. This would be impractical and expensive. As a result most research is based on short periods of time.

Stress and Cardiovascular/Psychiatric Disorders Acute stress and cardiovascular disorders -> Williams conducted a study to see if anger was linked to heart disease. 13, 000 participants had filled out a 10 question anger scale. At the outset of the study no one had showed signs of heart disease, 6 years later 256 participants had heart attacks. Individuals who scored high on ager scale is likely to have heart attack, individuals who scored moderately high likely to experience coronary event. Chronic stress and cardiovascular disorders -> Russek looked at heart disease and medical professionals. One group of doctors was designated as high stress (GPS and anaesthetics) and one group was low stress (pathologist and dermatologist). Heart disease was highest among GPS in the sample (11. 9%) and was lowest among dermatologist in the sample (3. 2%) Stress on existing disorders -> Sheps et al conducted a study looking at volunteers with ischemia. 173 men and women had gone through psychological test and a public speaking tests. During the public speaking test blood pressure had soared dramatically and in half of the participants the muscle of the left ventricle began to beat erratically. After 3 years, out of all the participants who experienced erratic heart beats, 44% had died compared to 18% who didn’t. This shows that psychological stress can increase the risk of death in individuals with poor artery circulation. Stress and depression -> Brown and Harris found that women suffering chronic stress conditions were like to suffer from depression. Furthermore working class women were more prone to depression compared to middle class women because of the stress of having to work and leave their children in the hands of other care. Stress and other disorders -> After the Vietnam war ended there was a mass incidence of psychiatric disorders. Post traumatic disorder has been seen to be common in rape victims and ware veterans. Rolf and Bennet found that 1 in 10 workers whose occupation involved the euthanaising of animals had experiences perpetration induced traumatic stress. However Steuve argues that stress is only associated with depression not disorders. Evaluation of stress and cardi/psychi disorders -> To develop a psychiatric disorder a person must possess a diathesis ( a vulnerability based on genetic and early biological factors). Stress impacts vulnerability by triggering it or worsening. -> Retrospective methodology is unreliable. Prospective studies, where experienced stressful event is followed overtime are rare. -> Not possible to assess, stressful event before diagnose of a psychiatric disorder as we don’t know if this caused the disorder. It may be the consequence of a person deteriorating state. -> Rabkium argues the effects are small, only accounting for less than 10%.

Life Changes Life changes-> Holmes and Rahe suggested that major life events whether positive and negative events cause physical illness. Change causes psychic energy to be expended i. e. It is stressful which affects health. The used SRRS as a measure of life changes. -> Rahe et al conducted a study asking 2700 US navy cruisers men to fill out questionnaires noting all the life events they had experience over the previous 6 months. An illness score was then calculated, based on the number, type and severity of illness the men had faced while they were on duty. A positive correlation of +0. 118 was found between LCU score and illness while on duty, which suggests that life changes cause stress, and therefore increase the chance of stress related illness. -> Michael and Benzor studied 130 men and women. Half were divorced and half were widows. They looked at life satisfaction and the widowed individuals had low life satisfaction but the divorced had high levels of life satisfaction and lower levels of stress. One explanation is that they were dating new partners. Evidence negative life changes can be made into positive experiences that could avoid stress. Evaluation of life changes-> Most studies show the relationship between life studies and illness using correlation data. This does not tell us a casual relationship between the two. Brown argues that anxiety may be a third variable, individuals with high anxiety are likely to report negative life events and therefore more prone to illness. -> Lazarus argues major life changes are rare. Most people experience minor daily stressors which is a more significant source of stress. Delongis et al studies stress in 75 married couples. Questionnaire was given on life events experienced and hassles and uplift scale. There was no relationship between life events and health but a positive correlation between daily hassles and next day illness’ e. g. Flu. -> SRRS ignores that life changes have significant differences for different people. E. g. The death of a much loved spouse is devastating for the surviving partner compared to the death of an elderly spouse who had a long painful illness. -> Life changes rely on retrospective reports. According to Brown this may lack validity as people may provide explanation for illness and therefore more likely to report stressful life events compared to individual who are not ill.

Daily Hassles Daily hassles -> Bouteyre et al investigated the relationship between daily hassles and mental health of students transitioning from school to university. Psychology students were asked to fill out the hassles part of HSUP and the beck depression inventory as a measure of symptoms of depression that is attributable to the hassle of transition. 41% suffered depressive symptoms and there was a positive correlation between daily hassles and depression. Suggesting that university is frequently fraught with daily hassles which is a significant factor for depression. Daily uplifts -> Gervais gave nurses diaries and asked them to record daily hassles and uplifts they experienced at work and job performance. At the end of the month, daily hassled increased job strain and decreased job performance. However the uplifts experience (such as a compliment) counteracted the negative effects of daily hassles. They had overcome stress caused by daily hassles and improved job performance. Evaluation of daily hassles -> According to Lazarus daily hassles can be explained using the accumulation effect. It is only a significant source of stress through the accumulation of persistent irritations, frustrations an overloads that results in serious stress reactions such as anxiety and depression. -> Daily hassles can be explained using the amplification affect. Chronic stress (the result of major life changes) make people more vulnerable to daily hassles. As the person is already in a state of stress, the presence of associated minor stressors may amplify the experience of stress. Makes them less able to cope with minor stressors than they would under normal circumstances. -> The reliability of retrospective reports have been questioned as assessing daily hassles requires participants to rate experiences that have happened in the previous months. However research has been overcome using a diary method. -> Correlation data, cannot draw up casual relationships. -> Individual differences. Miller et al found that daily hassles and uplifts depend on the perception of stress e. g. Pets may be seen as uplifts (leisure) or hassle (spend time and money on them).

Workplace stress -> Marmon et al investigated the job strain model of workplace stress and illness. High grade employees more likely to experience high workload whereas low grade employees experience low job control, therefore more likely to experience stress. They had given 7372 civil servants questionnaires on workload, job control, social support and where checked for cardiovascular problems. Workload -> Marmon et al found no link between workload and stress related illness, suggesting job demand is not a significant stress factor. -> Johansson et al looked at the effects of performing repetitive jobs which required continues attention (high job demand) sawyers in a Swedish Sawmill. There were higher illness rates and levels of adrenaline in their urine compared to low risk groups e. g. Maintenance workers with flexible jobs. Job control -> At the end of study, Marmon et al found that high grades in civil service had fewest cardiovascular problems compared to low grade. It is suggested that high grades had a sense of job control and good levels of social support whereas low grades didn‘t. Role conflict -> Conflict between work and family is associated with higher levels of absenteeism , lower levels of performance and poorer physical and mental health. Pomaki’s study of hospital doctors showed that role conflict was associated with emotional exhaustion and depression. Evaluation of daily hassles -> Kivimaki et al conducted a meta analysis of 14 studies looking at the relative risk of heart disease and a association with workplace stress. He found that out of 83, 000 employees those who experience high job strains, 50% likely develop coronary heart disease. -> Lazarus argues that the study of workplace stress ignored individual difference's in they way individuals react and cope with stressors. The degree to which a workplace stressor is perceived as stressful depends largely on the persons perceived ability to cope. -> Changing nature of the work environment, with the advent of new technology, virtual offices home/work environment means that our current knowledge of workplace stress rapidly becomes out of date.

Personality factors and Stress Type A Personality -> Type A individuals possessed characteristics of competitiveness, impatient and time urgent, hostile and aggressive. Friedman and Rosenman suggested that this lead to raised blood pressure and stress which is linked to ill health. Type B Personality -> Relaxed, patient, easy going and less vulnerable to stress. Research into Type A and B Personality -> To test the hypothesis CHD was associated with type A, Friedman and Rosenman examined 3000 men aged 39 -50 for signs of CHD ( this was to exclude individuals who already had an illness). Their personality was assessed using structured interviews. Included questionnaires of how they would respond to everyday pressure e. g. Waiting in a long queue. They also used provocative manner to elicit type A behaviour (interrupting and slow). 8 and half year later twice as many type A had died of cardiovascular problems. Type A’s were 12% likely to experience heart attack while type B’s 6%. Type A also likely to smoke, family history of CHD which increased there risk. Evaluation of type A personality -> Ragland Brand did a follow-up study 22 years later. 15% of 3000 men had died of CHD. This confirmed the risk of age, smoking and high blood pressure but little relationships between type A and CHD. -> Myrtek conducted a meta analysis of 35 studies on this topic and found a relationship between CHD and hostility but not between type A personality. Hardiness Personality -> Kobasa and Maddi suggested people are more psychologically hardy than others. These individuals possessed characteristics of control (being in control, not external) commitment ( involved with world around them and a sense of purpose) challenge (something to overcome rather than a stressor) Research into Hardiness -> Kobasa studied 800 American executives assessing stress using SRRS. 150 of participants were classified as high stress; some had low illness and high illness records. She suggested that hardy personality encouraged resilience. Individuals with high stress and low illness had scored high on the three characteristics of hardy personality. -> Maddi et al studied employees of a US company who was reducing workforce over a year. Two thirds of employees suffered stress related health problems. One third thrived and showed evidence of hardy attributes. Evaluation of Hardy personality -> Critics argue that the characteristics of hardy personality can be explained using the concept of negative affectivity. High NA are likely to report distress, dissatisfaction, dwell on failures and negative aspects of themselves. This suggest ‘hardy’ individuals are just low on NA. -> Hardiness relies on data through self reported questionnaires, but most recent efforts have led to the development of the personal view survey. This has raised criticism compared to original measure such as long and awkward wording and negatively worded items. -> The concept of hardiness in the real world may explain why some soldiers remain healthy under war related stress. In the Gulf War, the higher the hardiness more likely individuals would experience combat without disorders such as PTD.

Psychological methods of Stress Management Cognitive behavioural therapy is a way of changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs and changing behaviour. Stress Inoculation Therapy-> is an example of CBT. Individual should develop a form of coping, before problem arises. Meichenbaum argues that through this a person can inoculate against the disease of stress. -> Conceptionalisation phase A relationship between trainer and client established. The individual is then educated about the impact of stress. Taught to reconceptionalise, think differently about problems e. g. Stress is not a threat, problem to be solved. -> Skills acquisition phase and rehearsal. Coping skills taught, practised in clinic then irl. Positive thinking, relaxation, social skills, social support, time management, coping self statements are taught. Taught to think different and learn adaptive behaviours. -> Application phase. Client given opportunity to apply coping skills in different situations through, imagery, modelling and role-play. Strengths and Weaknesses of SIT -> Meichenbaum compared SIT with another treatment called SD. Patients used them to treat snake phobias. He found both reduced phobia but SIT helped deal with second non treated phobia. SIT can inoculate future stressful situation and current problems. -> Client given skills and confidence to cope with future problems. Focus on skill acquisition provides long lasting effectiveness so individual less affect by stressor in future. -> SIT requires time, money effort and motivation. Although it is effective by learning and practising skills, this complexity makes long therapy only suit a limited range of people. -> Only certain elements of training are effective, not all. This means activity and time could be reduced without loosing its effectiveness. E. g. It is equally effective to just learn to talk positively and relax more. Hardiness-> According to Kobasa, hardiness is a personality type resistant to stress. The aim of hardiness is to increase self confidence and a sense of control so individual can successfully navigate change. -> Focusing client is taught how to recognise the physiological signs of stress (increased heart rate, muscle tension) and also the source of stress. -> Reliving stress encounters. Client relieve stress encounters and helped to analyse situation and how to respond to them. Gives them an insight on current strategies on coping and how to make them more effective. -> Self improvement. Insights gained and new techniques used to deal with stress. Client taught to see stressors as a challenge to take control rather than problem. Strengths and Weaknesses of Hardiness -> Fletcher argues that hardiness used effectively by Olympic swimmers to ensure they are committed to the challenge on increased performance levels and are able to control stressful aspects of their daily lives that might interfere. -> Hardiness is a problem as it must address basic aspects of personality and learned habits of coping that is difficult to modify. It is not a rapid solution to stress management.

Biological methods of Stress Management (Drugs) Benzodiazepines -> Used to treat anxiety and stress. GABA is a neurotransmitter , the body's natural form of anxiety relief. Bzs bind to sites on GABA receptors and enhance action of GABA by allowing more chloride ions into the neuron , making it more resistant to excitation thus the person feels relaxed. -> Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has an arousing effect in brain. Bzs reduce increase in serotonin which then reduces activity in brain which has been said to cause anxiety. Beta-blockers-> Stress leads to the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system which leads to cardiovascular problems and weaker immune system. -> Bbs reduce the activity of adrenaline and noradrenalin which are apart of the sympathomedullary pathway. Bbs bind to receptors on the cell of the heart and other body parts that are stimulated during arousal. Bly block, its harder to stimulate the heart for example. So will beat slower, decrease blood pressure and cause less strain on heart. Person will feel less anxious and more calmer. Often used in sportsmen and musicians to combat negative effects of sympathetic arousal. Strengths and Weaknesses of SIT -> Khan et al followed nearly 250 patient for 8 weeks and found the Bzs were significantly superior to placebo’s. -> Hildaglo et al conducted a meta analysis of studies focusing on treatment of social anxiety. Bzs were more effective at reducing anxiety than other drugs. Effectiveness of drug is due to pharmacological properties than psychological (placebo). -> Therapy requires little effort from user as all they have to do is remember to take the pills. Less time and effort compared to psychological therapies such as SIT which requires time, effort and motivation to be effective. -> There addiction problems with Bzs even if a person is on low dose dependence. Such patients showed withdrawal symptoms, when stop taking. Ashton recommends that they should be taken every 4 weeks, however this may affect effectiveness. -> May be effective in treating symptoms but effect only lasts while taking the dug. In cases of chronic stress, taking the drug is not effective where the problem hasn't passed. It may be preferable to seek treatment that addresses the problem (psychological methods) rather than symptoms only.

Research method in link to stress research Strengths Weaknesses Correlation studies Can study relationships between variables that occur naturally, eg stress from exams and students getting ill. Can measure things that cannot be measured experimentally. Can suggest trends that can lead to experiments. It is not possible to say that one thing causes another. E. g. just because there is a correlation between stress and the immune system, it does not mean that stress directly caused the immune system to become less effective: there may be another variable connecting the two. Questionnaires Can be given to a large sample of people. Participants can answer the questionnaire without the need for the researcher to be present, so reducing experimenter bias. Compared with interviews they are easy to use, the researcher doesn’t need any special training to use them. Social desirability , Leading questions, Ambiguous wording/different understanding of words Participants may not tell the truth, especially with regard to stress-related issues which are sensitive Sampling difficulties/response rates, Closed questions leading to lack of detail, Open questions leading to difficulty of analysis Interviews If unstructured lots of information can be gathered, interviewee made to feel relaxed. If structured easily replicated, data easily analysed, less influenced by the interviewer. Social desirability, leading/misleading questions if structured little flexibility, questions may be ambiguous (think of the SRRS for determining stress levels), brief answers. If unstructured difficult to analyse, especially if different participants discuss different issues (Generalisability) Observations What people say they do is often different from what they actually do, so observation may be more valid than questionnaires/interviews. Gives a more realistic picture of behaviour. It is likely to have high ecological validity. There can be little or no control of extraneous variables which may mean that something unknown to the observes may account for the behaviour. The observer may see what he or she expects to see. This is called observer bias. This means different observers see differently fro each other , which leads to low interobserver reliability. It participants don’t know they are being observed there are ethical problems such as deception and invasion of privacy. If they do know, they may alter their behaviour.

Conformity -> Is a form of social influence, where exposure to a majority position causes individuals to adopt behaviour, attitudes and values in reference to this group. Compliance -> It is a process of social comparison, where individuals concentrate on what other say or do and adjust their own view to fit in with them. Individuals go along with others to gain approval and avoid disapproval. It results public compliance with little or no change private attitude. Internalisation -> Individuals are encouraged to go through a validation process, examining their own beliefs and going with other views because they are consistent with your own. It results in acceptance of views both publicly and privately. Study into conformity -> Asch aimed to see if people would conform or stick to what they thought was right. 123 male American undergraduates were showed a series of line an asked in the same order which line was identical to the standard line? Among the participants were confederates who were instructed to give the same incorrect answer 12 out 18 of the trials. -> Asch found that in the 12 trials, 36. 8% of the responses were incorrect, they had conformed. Only ¼ never conformed in any of the trials. To confirm that the lines were unambiguous, he conducted a trial with no confederates and found that individuals to make mistakes 1% of the time. -> He concluded that most conformed for three reasons; discretion of judgement, perception and action. Variations in Asch study -> Difficulty of the task. In one study the difference between line lengths were small so it was less obvious to find correct length, making it more difficult. Under these condition conformity increased as people did not know which was right or wrong. -> Size of the majority. Asch found that there was very little conformity when the majority just consisted of one or two, under the pressure of three, conformity increased to 30%. -> Unanimity of the majority. In original study confederates unanimously gave the same wrong answer. When the real participant was given the support of another participant or confederate, conformity dropped and errors reduced from 32% to just 5. 5%.

Evaluating Conformity Validity ->It is an insignificant task, on a more important task we would expect conformity rates to drop. There were special pressures to conform, individuals conformed to save face, didn't want to look or sound and because they were with strangers. William and Sogon looked at individuals who belonged to the same sports club, and found that conformity may be higher with people you know. Real world applications-> Most common place we see conformity is in a jury. Insights from Asch study suggest that jurors would not want to appear deviant from fellow jurors, so the pressure to conform is particularly strong. Tanford and Penrod that the first vote determines the outcome of deliberations in 95% of cases. Ethics -> Unethical. Participants did not know the real purpose of the study or that some participants were actually confederates. It was deceitful and therefore lacked informed consent. Objections can be overcome if researcher debriefs properly. Asch gave participants the option to have data withhold. Mc. Carthyism -> The study is unique to one culture. Participant were American men of the 1960’s (an era of anti-communist feeling and scared to be different). Perrin and Spencer repeated the study in England found only 1 conforming response out of 396 trials. They also repeated the study using youths on probation and confederates as probation officers and found that conforming increased when the cost of non-conforming was high. Stable or unpredictable -> Lalancette and Standing modified Ash study by making the test stimuli more ambiguous to increase conformity. No conformity was observed. Suggesting that the ‘Asch effect’ is an unpredictable phenomenon and not a stable tendency of human behaviour. Conformity or Independence- > Two thirds of Asch participants had stuck to their original opinion. Rather than showing humans to be conformist, Asch study shows us a tendency to stick with what we believe; independent behaviour. Culture and conformity -> Smith and Bond conducted a meta analysis of 133 studies in 17 country on conformity in both individualist and collectivist countries. Results showed that collectivist countries had high conformity than individualist, showing the impact of culture on conformity. There was also a negative correlation between date and conformity. However, this study has been criticised as cultures are not homogenous.

Explanations of why people conform Normative social influence -> A majority may be able to control other group members by making it difficult for them to deviate from the majority point of view, exerting pressure on individuals to conform. Humans have a fundamental needs for social companionship and a fear of rejection. This forms the basis of normative social influence. Study of normative social influence -> Garandeau and Cillessen have shown how groups with low quality interpersonal friendships may be manipulated by a skilful bully so that the victimization of another provides the group with a common goal; creating pressure to comply. Asch study. Informational social influence -> Individuals go along with others because they genuinely believe them to be right. It does not only lead individuals to comply in behaviour but change their point of view in line of those doing the influencing. It is a form of internalisation where individual attitudes change both publicly and privately. Study of informational social influence -> Wittenbrink and Henly have shown how participant exposed to negative comparison information about African Americans (who were led to believe to be the view of the majority), later reported, negative beliefs about a black target individual. Evaluation -> The model suggests that ISI and NSI are separate explanations however Insko et al showed that they actually complement each other and work together to affect conformity. -> NSI does not acknowledge the importance of belonging to a group, as many studies have shown that conformity to group norm can persist long after the group no longer exists, showing that the explanation cannot be applied to all situations and that there are others factors other than dependency that are important to whether the individual conforms or not. Perrin and Spencer found that only 1 out of 396 trials did British students conform in so could be due to culture

Obedience -> Is a form of social influence, whereby the response from a direct order is from a figure with perceived authority. There is also the implication that the person receiving the order is made to respond in a way that they would not have done without the order. Study into obedience -> Milgram aimed to see if individuals would obey an authority figure. The procedure involved 40 male participant gathered through volunteer sampling who were given a $450 incentive. Among participant were confederates (the experimenter and learner). Participants (teacher) were asked to administer shock if the learner answered incorrectly. The learner gave wrong answers and received fake shocks till 300 v. They began to pound the wall at 315 v followed by objections. If the teacher asked to leave, experimenter would insist that they go on. -> It was predicted that individuals would refuse to obey , few would go beyond 150 v and 4% to 300 v. Milgram found that 65% participants continued to 450 v (danger) , all participants to 300 v and 12. 5% stopped when they heard learners first objection. -> He concluded that ordinary people obey authority even if it requires you to act in an inhumane manner and not only evil people commit atrocities. An individual’s capacity to making independent decisions is suspended when put in a subordinate position of a powerful social hierarchy. He also argued that obedience was the result of situations factors rather than dispositional. Variations in Mailgrams study (situational factors) -> The proximity of the victim. In a proximity study, the teacher and the learner were seated in the same room. In comparison to the voice feedback study, obedience dropped from 62. 5% to 40%. This may be because the teacher could experience learners anguish. -> The proximity of authority figure. In the baseline study, the experimenter sat a few meters away from the participant who was constantly observed and monitored. In the experimenter absent study , subsequent order were delivered over the phone. Participants had defied the experiment with only 21% continuing to maximum shock level. Participants also gave weaker shocks. -> Presence of allies. In the peers rebel study, two accomplices and the real participant played teachers. When the two bogus teachers refused, almost all participants refused to deliver shocks. Only 10% went to maximum shock level. The participants had used the defiance of their peers as an opportunity extricate themselves from causing further harm to victim. -> Increasing he teachers discretion. In one variation, the level of shock was left to the teachers discretion. In this condition only 1 participant delivered maximum shock level, 95% of participants refused to deliver shocks beyond the learners first objection

Evaluating Obedience Informed consent (ethics)-> Milgram deceived participants saying that the purpose of study was to see “the effects of punishment on learning” and lied about true purpose, this gave participant little informed consent. However without some degree of deception the study would be meaningless. Right to withdraw (ethics) -> In Milgram’s study it was not clear to what extent participants had the right to withdraw this is because of the experimenters prods (the experiment insist you continue). However Milgram claimed that participants knew they were free to leave, supported by the fact that some did. Psychological harm (ethics)-> Baumrind attacked Milgram’s study, arguing that his study placed participants under great emotional strain causing psychological damage which cannot be justified. However Milgram asked participants one year later afterwards if the experiment was distressing. 84% was glad to have participated and 74% had learnt something of personal importance. Society (ethics)-> Milgram’s study challenges western assumptions about freedom and personal responsibility. He suggest that everyone is capable of performing the same was as participants and so the same was as SS guards in death camp did, which isn't justifiable. Realism (validity) -> Orne and Holland argue that although the learner cries out in pain the experimenter remains cool and distant. This allows participants to believe that the learner is not suffering real harm so they are ready to administer shocks. However Milgram’s post experiment interviews shows that participants thought they were real shocks. Generalisability (validity) -> Hofling et al conducted a study in a hospital where nurses were telephoned by a doctor who asked 20 mg of a drug to a patient. This contravened hospital regulations as it was twice as much the dose advised and nurses instructed not to take orders over the phone. 21 out of 22 nurses obeyed showing obedience in real life settings. However Rank and Jacobsen also asked nurses to carry out an irregular order. This time 16 out 18 refused. The difference was they were familiar with drug and were allowed to consult with peers ( a real representation of hospital setting). Obedience as an alibi (validity) -> Mandel argues that the situational detriments of obedience is not borne out by real life events. For example the presence of allies ; the battalions men peers had extricated themselves from killing however the majority continued killing in comparison to Milgram’s participants.

Explanations of why people obey Gradual commitment -> Participants had already given lower levels of shocks, this made it harder to resist the experiments requirements to increase the shock level. Committing themselves to one course of action made it difficult to change their mind. Agentic shift -> The agentic state is the condition a person see’s themselves as an agent of carrying out someone wishes. Milgram states that individuals shift back and fourth an agentic state and an autonomous state (state a person see’s himself as acting on his own). When entering a hierarchy of authority, individuals shift from autonomy to seeing their role as executing the wishes of another. The role of buffers ->The teachers were protected from seeing the learner receive shocks (this is known as the buffering effect) When the teacher was in the same room as the learner the buffering affect reduced so did the tendency to obey experimenter. Justifying obedience -> The participant roles to deliver electric shocks was justified using science to help improve individuals memory through punishment. The Nazi’s saw Jews as a danger to Germany. This increased obedience. By offering an ideology for science individuals are willing to surrender freedom as they believe its a justifiable cause. Criticising explanation for obedience -> Monocausal emphasis. Milgram ignores other plausible explanations. According to Goldhagen anti-Semitism (hostility and prejudice) was the primary motivation of the annihilation of Jews rather than obedience as some actions were voluntary. -> Agentic shift is applied to the holocaust and the experiment however both experienced different conditions; the holocaust perpetrators carried out duties over months where the experiment lasted for half an hour. RPB executed 38, 000 Jews over a four year period and participants were reassured the shocks would not cause permanent damage. Despite these different Milgram believed the agentic shift was out work. -> Obedience alibi causes negative effects. Justifying the Holocaust by just obeying order as an alibi is distressing to those affected by it and exonerates war criminals of their crime.

Resisting pressure to conform and obedience Insights from Asch study (conformity) -> The role of allies. Asch showed that the introduction of another dissident gave social support caused conformity to plummet. Social support provides individuals with an independent assessment of reality which makes them more confident in their decision. Allen and Levine found in an Asch type study, that invalid support (wearing glasses) and valid support (normal vision) both sufficient. Moral considerations (conformity) -> The cost of abandoning a personal position is relatively minor compared to abandoning the interpersonal benefits of fitting in a group. However, if the task involves judgements with a moral dimension , the cost of person integrity may be higher. Hornsey et al found little movements towards the majority on attitudes that had moral significance e. g. Cheating. Non-conformist personality (conformity) -> Some individuals are predisposed to react to the majority position by actively opposing the norm. Some may be unaware of norm but oppose the norm based on strong convictions (these individuals are considered to be anti conforming orientation). For example, Rosa Parks. Insights from Milgram study (obedience) -> When Milgram's study was moved from the prestigious setting of Yale university to a downtown office, obedience levels decreased. Suggesting when resisting authority, status is a key factor. Resistance also decreased when the victim could be seen suggesting that being aware of the effects of actions increased resistance. Moral considerations (obedience) -> Kohlberg gave a group of Milgram's volunteers, similar dilemmas to the shock study. Those who based their decisions on moral principle (justice over social order) were more defiant than those on a more restricted level of moral development who obeyed experimenter completely. Social heroism (obedience) -> Zimbardo suggest those who resist against authorative figures are really heroes (those willing to make sacrifices for the good others in society) Social heroism involves putting oneself at risk in the pursuit of an important principle e. g. Nelson Mandela & Apartheid policies. One factor that encourages heroic actions ‘heroic imagination’ e. g. Imagining facing risky social situations.

Individual differences: Locus of control The locus of control -> Aspects of personality, of how people perceive personal control over their own behaviour. It is measured across a dimension of high internals (having personal control over ) and high external ( behaviour caused by external factors, fate or luck). Three characteristics of high internals -> Active seekers of information that is useful to them so do not rely on others opinion. More achievement orientated and consequently are more likely to become leaders and entrepreneurs. Are able to resist coercion from others. Research on the locus of control -> Research suggest that high internals are likely to be leaders than to follow others. The rationale for this is individual who attribute responsibility for actions themselves, assume they can cause changes in the environment and those around them. Anderson and Schneier found that high internal are more likely to emerge as leaders in their groups. -> Rotter argues that people in high internality rely more on their own actions and exhibit great initiative, making them more successful. Evaluating the locus of control -> Locus of control can be applied to changing historical record. A metaanalysis from 1960 -2002 by Twenge et al found that young Americans increasingly becoming externals. This correlates with poor school achievement, decreased self control and depression. This is because of social changes such as increasing divorce rates, violent crime and suicide. Twenge believes that the increase in social factors has caused an increase in externality as young people feel little control over their lives. -> Does not take into account of gender differences. Linz and Semykina found that men more likely to exhibit and internal locus of control and need for challenge, with women more likely to exhibit external locus and a need for affiliation. However personality appeared to play no part in earnings for men (measure of success) but did for women, with internals being high wage earners. -> Blass reviewed many studies of locus of control and independent behaviour, and concluded that there is no clear link between the two as many studies supported a link and others found no link.

The role of minority influence in social change Consistency -> If the minority influence is flexible, non dogmatic and consistent in their approach then they can bring about social change and challenge the beliefs held by the majority influence. Moscovici investigated the idea that a minority must be consistent in their views in order to create conflict in the rest of the group so they question their views. Tested 32 groups of six women (4 naïve participants and 2 confederates). They were shown a series of 36 slides all different shades of blue, the participants then had to name the colour of each slide out loud. In on condition (consistent) the confederates called out all of the 36 slides as green. Under this condition 8% of participants moved to the minority position and called it green. In the inconsistent condition, confederates called out 24 of the 36 slides green, under this condition 1. 25% of the participants moved to the minority position. The argumentation principle -> If there are risks involved with putting a particular view forward then it is taken more seriously because there are members of the minority who are willing to suffer for their views. The suffragettes fight to vote continued even when they faced imprisonment/ hunger strikes or even death so the majority groups were more likely to take their view on because they were willing to suffer showing the importance of the augmentation principle. Snowball effect-> Members of the majority slowly move towards the minority position, and so minority group grow in size picking up momentum so that more and more of the majority members become part of the minority group, and eventually the minority become the majority and their views are accepted. Clacks mock jury study of the film 12 angry men, showed how people may change their minds when the see others adopting a minority view point. Views and attitudes of a powerful individual -> Kohlberg found that those who based their decisions on moral principles tended to be more defiant in Milgram's study. Individuals who resist obedience are freer to be a force of social change. Rosa Parks’ defiant action of sitting in the white’s only area of a bus in the USA sparked a series of riots and protests sparking an American civil right movement. Social crypto amnesia -> When social change occurs in a society, the attitude or opinion becomes a part of the society’s culture, and the source of the minority influence that led to it is generally forgotten. Very few women who vote in the UK consciously thank the Suffragettes for the fact that they can vote, rather women voting is now a normal and expected part of society.

12 Marker Practise Discuss the cognitive model of abnormality (12 marks) Discuss cognitive therapies for psychological abnormalities (12 marks) Discuss the biological model of abnormality (12 marks) Discuss biological therapies for psychological abnormalities (12 marks) Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to abnormality (12 marks) Outline and evaluate psychoanalysis as a therapy for psychological abnormalities (12 marks) Discuss the behavioural model of abnormality (12 marks) Outline and evaluate behavioural therapies for abnormalities (12 marks) Outline and evaluate research into the link between stress and the immune system (12 marks) Outline and evaluate research into the life changes and daily hassles as sources of stress (12 marks) Discuss research into stress and the workplace (12 marks) Outline and evaluate research into different personality factors in responding to stress (12 marks) Discuss psychological and biological methods of stress management (12 marks) Discuss research into conformity (12 marks) Discuss explanations of conformity (12 marks) Outline and evaluate research into obedience (12 marks) Discuss research into independent behaviour, for example how people resist pressures to conform or obey (12 marks)