Psychology CHAPTER 5 Development Across the Life Span

Psychology CHAPTER 5 Development Across the Life Span

Module 11 Topics in Development

Learning Objectives • LO 11. 1 • LO 11. 2 • • LO 11. 3 LO 11. 4 How do biological and environmental factors influence development? What are some major research issues in developmental psychology? How do psychologists study development? What are critical periods and sensitive periods?

Developmental Research Designs LO 11. 1 How do biological and environmental factors influence development? • Human development - the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death.

Nature versus Nurture LO 11. 1 How do biological and environmental factors influence development? • Nature - the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. • Nurture - the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Genetics Influences LO 11. 1 How do biological and environmental factors influence development? • Chromosome - tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA. • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism.

Genetics Influences LO 11. 1 How do biological and environmental factors influence development? • Gene - section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements. – Recessive - referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait. – Dominant - referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene.

Figure 11. 1 DNA Molecule The rungs of this twisted ladderlike structure are the amines that carry the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up life.

Human Development LO 11. 2 What are some major research issues in developmental psychology? • Continuity or discontinuity? – Does development happen in a smooth, continuous progression, or in a series of clear-cut stages? • Stability or change? – What remains stable over the course of human development, and what changes?

Developmental Psychology LO 11. 2 What are some major research issues in developmental psychology? • Physical Development - tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA. • Cognitive development - development of thinking and reasoning skills such as problem solving and memory.

Developmental Psychology LO 11. 2 What are some major research issues in developmental psychology? • Psychosocial development - affecting our emotional and social lives. – Temperament - a child's innate personality and emotional characteristics, observable in infancy; the enduring characteristics with which each person is born. – Attachment - the first emotional bond a child forms with its primary caretaker.

Developmental Research Designs LO 11. 3 How do psychologists study development? • Longitudinal design - research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time. • Cross-sectional design - research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time.

Developmental Research Designs LO 11. 3 How do psychologists study development? • Cross-sequential design - research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years.

Childhood Development LO 11. 4 What are critical periods and sensitive periods? • Critical Period - a time when a child is developmentally most susceptible to the presence or absence of particular stimuli in the environment and must progress to the next stage of development is to continue normally.

Childhood Development LO 11. 4 What are critical periods and sensitive periods? • Sensitive Period - a time when a child is susceptible to stimuli and receptive to learning from particular types of experiences.

Module 12 Prenatal, Infant and Childhood Development

Learning Objectives • • • LO 12. 1 LO 12. 2 LO 12. 3 • • • LO 12. 4 LO 12. 5 LO 12. 6 • LO 12. 7 How do humans develop from conception through birth? What reflexes and abilities do newborns have? What kinds of physical changes take place in infancy and childhood? How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? What are the stages of language development? How do babies begin to develop relationships with others? How do children develop socially and emotionally?

Genetics and Development LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Conception - the moment at which a female becomes pregnant. • Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg. • Fertilization - the union of the ovum and sperm. • Zygote - cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby.

Conception and Twins LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Monozygotic twins - identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo. • Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

Figure 12. 1 Identical and Fraternal Twins Identical twins are the same sex and look exactly alike because they come from a single fertilized egg that splits. They are also called monozygotic twins (“mono” means “one”). Fraternal twins may be of different sexes and do not look as much alike because they come from different eggs. They are also called dizygotic twins (“di” means “two”).

Periods of Pregnancy LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining.

Periods of Pregnancy LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop. – Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth defect. • Fetal period - the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child.

Table 12. 1 Common Teratogens

Prenatal Development LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Uterus - the muscular organ that will contain and protect the developing infant. • Placenta - a specialized organ that develops out of fetal tissue, providing nourishment and filtering away waste products. • Umbilical cord - cord that connects the baby to the placenta and implants itself in the uterine wall.

Prenatal Development LO 12. 1 How do humans develop from conception through birth? • Embryo - name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization. • Fetus - name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby.

Figure 12. 2 Stages of Prenatal Development

Reflexes and Abilities LO 12. 2 What reflexes and abilities do newborns have? • Four critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are: – Respiration – Digestion – Circulation – Temperature regulation

Reflexes and Abilities LO 12. 2 What reflexes and abilities do newborns have? • Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive: sucking, rooting, Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski. • The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth.

Figure 12. 3 Five Newborn Reflexes Shown here are five reflexes used to make sure the newborn's nervous system is healthy. These include (a) the grasping reflex, (b) the startle or Moro reflex, (c) the rooting reflex, in which a baby whose cheek is touched will turn toward the hand, open its mouth, and begin searching for the nipple (continued on next slide)

Figure 12. 3 (continued) Five Newborn Reflexes (d) the stepping reflex, and (e) the sucking reflex.

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood LO 12. 3 What kinds of physical changes take place in infancy and childhood? • Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood. • Nutrition, care, and health affect development. – Importance of immunizations. • Muscle strength and coordination improve around age 10 -12.

Figure 12. 4 Six Motor Milestones Typical milestones in motor development are shown here: (a) raising head and chest— 2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over— 2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support— 4 to 6 months (continued on next slide)

Figure 12. 4 (continued) Six Motor Milestones (d) sitting up without support— 6 to 7 months, (e) crawling— 7 to 8 months, and (f) walking— 8 to 18 months.

Cognitive Development LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Cognitive development - the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas) a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events.

Cognitive Development LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Piaget's belief - children form mental schemes as they experience new situations and events. – Assimilation - in this case, the process of trying to understand new things in terms of schemes one already possesses. – Accommodation - in this case, the process of altering or adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences.

Piaget's Stage Theory LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Sensorimotor stage - Piaget's first stage of cognitive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment. – Object permanence - the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight.

Piaget's Stage Theory LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Preoperational stage - Piaget's second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world.

Piaget's Stage Theory LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Preoperational stage (continued) – Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes. – Centration - in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Piaget's Stage Theory LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Preoperational stage (continued) – Conservation - in Piaget's theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature.

Figure 12. 5 Measuring Conservation Skills Experimenters often measure children's conservation skills by pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one glass is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children incorrectly assume that the second glass has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are then spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will assume that there actually more pennies in that line.

Piaget's Stage Theory LO 12. 4 How do infants and children develop cognitive skills? • Concrete operations stage - third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. • Formal operations - Piaget's last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking.

Table 12. 2 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Current Theory LO 12. 5 What are the stages of language development? • Child-directed speech – children attend to higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech. • Expressive language delay - the apparent ability of infants to understand far more language than they can produce.

Stages of Language Development LO 12. 5 • • • What are the stages of language development? Cooing Babbling One-word speech (holophrases) Telegraphic speech Whole sentences

Attachment LO 12. 6 How do babies begin to develop relationships with others? • Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. – Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return. – Avoidant – unattached; explore without “touching base. ”

Attachment LO 12. 6 How do babies begin to develop relationships with others? • Attachment (continued) – Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return. – Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.

Erikson's First Four Stages LO 12. 7 How do children develop socially and emotionally? • Eight stages of social development in total. • First four stages take place in infancy or childhood. – Each represents an emotional crisis or turning point.

Erikson's First Four Stages LO 12. 7 How do children develop socially and emotionally? • Trust versus mistrust - first stage of personality development in which the infant's basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care. • Autonomy versus shame and doubt second stage of personality development in which the toddler strives for physical independence.

Erikson's First Four Stages LO 12. 7 How do children develop socially and emotionally? • Initiative versus guilt - third stage of personality development in which the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world.

Erikson's First Four Stages LO 12. 7 How do children develop socially and emotionally? • Industry versus inferiority - fourth stage of personality development in which the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem.

Module 13 Adolescence and Adulthood

Learning Objectives • • LO 13. 1 LO 13. 2 • • LO 13. 3 LO 13. 4 • LO 13. 5 • • • LO 13. 6 LO 13. 7 LO 13. 8 What physical changes happen during adolescence? How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence? How do adolescents form their identities? What role do family members and peers play in adolescent development? What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood? What physical changes happen during adulthood? How do scientists explain why aging occurs? What are the stages of death and dying?

Puberty and Adolescence LO 13. 1 What physical changes happen during adolescence? • Adolescence - the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult. • Puberty - the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. – Period of about four years.

Egocentric Thinking LO 13. 2 How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence? • Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

Egocentric Thinking LO 13. 2 How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence? • Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

Development of Morality LO 13. 2 How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence? • Preconventional morality - first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior. • Conventional morality - second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior.

Development of Morality LO 13. 2 How do reasoning and morality develop during adolescence? • Postconventional morality - third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and which may be in disagreement with accepted social norms.

Table 13. 1 Kohlberg's Three Levels of Morality

Erikson's Fifth Stage LO 13. 3 How do adolescents form their identities? • Identity versus role confusion - stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self.

Adolescent Development LO 13. 4 What role do family members and peers play in adolescent development? • Parent/teen conflict – Conflict with parents may encourage independence. • Peer pressure – Adolescents without a strong sense of self are vulnerable to peer pressure.

Erikson's Theories of Adulthood LO 13. 5 What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood? • Intimacy - an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self. • Generativity - providing guidance to one's children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work.

Erikson's Theories of Adulthood LO 13. 5 What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood? • Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego.

Adulthood Cognitive Changes LO 13. 5 What social and cognitive changes occur during adulthood? • Intellectual abilities do not decline overall. • Perception and reaction time slows.

Physical Changes and Aging LO 13. 6 What physical changes happen during adulthood? • Adulthood begins in the early twenties. – Changes occur in one's 30 s, 40 s, 50 s, and later. • Menopause - the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman's reproductive capability. • Andropause - gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males.

Physical Changes and Aging LO 13. 6 What physical changes happen during adulthood? • Effects of aging on health: – Hereditary and lifestyle factors – Increase in health problems § High blood pressure § Skin cancer § Heart problems § Arthritis § Obesity

Theories of Aging LO 13. 7 How do scientists explain why aging occurs? • Cellular clock theory - based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce; once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate. • Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body's tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage.

Theories of Aging LO 13. 7 How do scientists explain why aging occurs? • Free radical theory - oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go. • Activity theory - theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby.

Stages of Death and Dying LO 13. 8 • • • Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance What are the stages of death and dying?

Death and Dying LO 13. 8 What are the stages of death and dying? • Many associate death with old age. • Death can happen at any time.