Psychology 4e by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 5 Learning

Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin CHAPTER 5: Learning

Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004

Learning Ethology l The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat. § Fixed Action Pattern l A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Learning Ethology Herring-Gull Models § In herring gull chicks, pecking is elicited (released) by the movement of any red dot, even on objects that do not resemble an adult herring gull. This is an example of a fixed action pattern. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Learning Defining Learning § A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience. l l l Adaptation by learning is flexible. Humans adapt to life’s demands by learning and not by instinct. The key to learning is association. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Learning Habituation of Fear § Habituation l l l The tendency of an organism to become familiar with a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure It is the simplest form of learning. Note here that rats repeatedly exposed to a cat’s odor, and no cat, hid less over time. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Learning Classical Conditioning l A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another (also called Pavlovian conditioning). § Classical Conditioning involves learning that one event predicts another. § This type of learning involves • • An unconditioned stimulus An unconditioned response A conditioned stimulus A conditioned response Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning § An unconditioned stimulus (US) l A stimulus (an event) that triggers an unconditioned (involuntary) response. • Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli • In Pavlov’s experiments, the US was the food. § An unconditioned response (UR) l An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. • Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UR. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning § A conditioned stimulus (CS) l A neutral stimulus (an event) that comes to evoke a classically conditioned (learned) response due to being presented shortly before the US. • In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell. § A conditioned response (CR) l A learned response to a classically conditioned stimulus. • In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Apparatus § Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Discovery Before Conditioning § Before Stimuli Are Paired l Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits Unconditioned Response (UR) • Meat powder leads to salivation l Neutral stimulus elicits no particular response • Bell leads to orienting response only, no salivation Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Discovery During and After Conditioning § Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus is Paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus l l Bell rings, then meat powder is delivered This procedure is repeated several times § After Several Trials of pairing the bell with the food l l l When Bell rings, dog salivates The Bell is now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Salivation is a Conditioned Response (CR) Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Basic Principles § Acquisition l Formation of a learned response to a stimulus through presentation of an unconditioned stimulus § Extinction l Elimination of a learned response by removal of the unconditioned stimulus § Spontaneous Recovery l Re-emergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning The Rise and Fall of a Conditioned Response Psychology, 4/e by Saul

Classical Conditioning Temporal Relations in Classical Conditioning § In forward pairing, the CS precedes the US. l Easiest conditioning § In simultaneous pairing, the CS and US occur together. § In backward pairing, the CS follows the US. l Most difficult Time Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Generalization & Discrimination § Stimulus Generalization l The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus § Discrimination l In classical and operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish between different stimuli Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning § With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS. l The bell (CS) is paired with a black square. § This neutral stimulus becomes a CS. l In the example, the black square elicits salivation. § One CS was used to create another CS. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning When the CS Predicts the US § Top graph: The US does not happen without the CS l Good learning here, the CS predicts the US § Bottom graph: The US happens with or without CS l Poor learning here, the CS does not predict the US Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning The Conditioning of Little Albert § An 11 -month old boy – named “Albert” – was conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat. l Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud clanging noise right behind Albert. § Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry. l Including rabbits and a Santa Claus mask Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Learning Operant Conditioning § Cats were put into puzzle boxes and the time to escape decreased over the number of attempts. § Law of Effect l Thorndike’s Law of Effect Responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement § Operant Conditioning l The process by which organisms learn to behave in ways that produce reinforcement. § Reinforcement l Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning The Principles of Reinforcement § Punishment l Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response. § Shaping l Using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement & Punishment Increases Behavior Decreases Behavior Present Stimulus Positive Reinforcement Punishment (give money) (give chores) Remove Stimulus Negative Reinforcement (take away chores) Negative Punishment (take away money) Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning Schedules of Reinforcement § Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns. § Steeper lines mean higher response rates. § Ratio schedules produce more responses than do interval schedules. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning Using Reinforcement to Boost Job Performance § All salesclerks were observed for a 20 -day baseline period. § Then, half were given cash bonuses for good performance, half were not. § The ones given cash bonuses improved job performance. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning Condition Oneself to Break a Bad Habit § Identify specific target behavior to change § Record baseline § Formulate a plan l l To increase a behavior, use reinforcement To extinguish behavior, avoid situations where it occurs or remove reinforcements § Implement the plan, revise as needed § Maintain the change Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning New Developments Rats in a Maze: Evidence for a Cognitive Map § Tolman trained rats in this maze, with alleys open. § If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path. § If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path. l Green path is also blocked. § Rats take the shortest detours, navigating as if they have an internal map. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning New Developments § Latent Learning: Latent Learning that occurs but is not exhibited in performance until there is an incentive to do so. § Some rats found food every time (red line) § Some rats never found food (blue line) § Some rats found food on Day 11 (green line) Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Operant Conditioning New Developments Hidden Cost of Rewards § Preschoolers played with felt-tipped markers and were observed. § Divided into 3 groups: l l l Given markers again and asked to draw Promised a reward for playing with markers Played with markers, then rewarded § Children who drew with the markers to get the reward were now less interested in them. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Observational Learning that takes place when one observes and models the behavior of others. § Studies of Modeling l Children and others model both antisocial and prosocial behavior. l Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall

Observational Learning The Process of Modeling Involves: § Attention l One must pay attention to a behavior and its consequences. § Retention l One must recall what was observed. § Reproduction l Observers must have the motor ability to reproduce the modeled behavior. § Motivation l Observer must expect reinforcement for modeled act. Psychology, 4/e by Saul Kassin © 2004 Prentice Hall