PSYC 112 PSYCHOLOGY FOR EVERYDAY LIVING SESSION 10

PSYC 112 PSYCHOLOGY FOR EVERYDAY LIVING SESSION 10 – MOTIVATION Lecturer: Dr. Paul Narh Doku, Dept of Psychology, UG Contact Information: pndoku@ug. edu. gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017

Session Overview • This session offers a broad introduction to social psychology, the scientific study of human social influence and interaction. The session will explore the various ways people think about, affect, and relate to one another. The session will cover topics such as the attitudes, conformity, helping behavior, compliance, obedience, social judgement (attribution), social presence and group dynamics or processes. Slide 2

Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: • Topic One – Learning and its scope • Topic Two – Classical Conditioning and its applications • Topic Three – Operant Conditioning and its applications • Topic Four – Observational and its applications • Topic Five – Cognitive Learning and its applications • Topic Five – Transfer of Learning Slide 3

Reading List • Refer to students to relevant text/chapter or reading materials you will make available on Sakai Dr. Richard Boateng, UGBS Slide 4

Motivation (Theories that explain our motives) College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017

Motives and Types of Motives • Motive is need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. There are basically 4 types of motives, namely: • Biological/Physiological – Food, water, sex, etc • Emotional – Anger, love, fear, etc • Cognitive – Beliefs, expectations, etc • Social – Reactions to parents, friends, etc

Another categorization of motives • Primary motives - These motives are based on biological needs that are necessary for our survival such as hunger, thirst, sleep, air, etc • Secondary motives - These are motives which have no connection with biological drives but are purely learned or acquired. They are related to learned needs for power, affiliation, approval, status, security, and achievement. • Stimulus motives - These are needs for stimulation and information including activity, curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact. They are not necessary for survival although they appear to be inborn Slide 7

Motivation and Its Scope • Zimbardo et al (2003) defined motivation as all the processes involved in starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities. • Motivation are the influences that account for the initiation, persistence, and intensity of our behaviours • It is the reason or purpose of a behavior……. it accounts for why we do what we do. It is the process that initiates, activates, or maintains one’s goal-oriented

Motivation • Motivation is usually an internal state and cannot be directly observed or seen but can be inferred from external behavior. A state (either a need or desire) that energizes & directs us and keeps us moving toward our goals • So motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that needs or wants are met.

A Model of Motivation (Osafo 2007) • Motivated behaviour usually begins with a need (an internal deficiency). The need will cause a drive (an energized motivational state) to develop. Drives will activate response (an action or series of actions) designed to attain a goal (the target of motivated behaviour). When the goal satisfies the original need, the sequence of motivation ends. Slide 10

Types of Motivation • • Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which a person desires to performs a task are controlled by outside or external sources such as salaries, bonuses, employee of the month, promotion, etc. • Intrinsic motivation – Here, one’s motivational stimuli for performing an action are coming from within or because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Examples include acceptance, curiosity, order, Menu power, independence, honour, etc

Theories of Motivation • Instinct Theory • Drive-reduction Theory • Arousal Theory • Incentive Driven • Cognitive • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Instinct Theory of Motivation • Instinct is an inborn, innate patterns of behavior that is biologically determined rather than learned. It is a biologically pre-determined and pre-wired pattern of behavior that exist in organisms. • Instincts has genetic component and are the automatic, unlearned, involuntary behavior patterns consistently triggered by particular stimuli • Instinct theory of motivation states that our motivation is the result of biological, unlearned, genetic preprogramming. It assumes that humans are controlled by instincts similar to those of animals.

Instinct theory ……. . • According to instinct approaches to motivation, people and animals are born with preprogrammed sets of behaviors essential to their survival. • These instincts provide the energy that initiates, sustains and channels behaviour in appropriate directions. • For example, sex might be explained as a response to an instinct for reproduction, and exploratory behavior might be viewed as motivated by an instinct to examine one’s territory. • There are several difficulties with such a conception, however. Menu • For one thing, there is no agreement on what, or even how many, primary instincts exist

Instinct theory ……. . • One early psychologist, William Mc. Dougall (1908), suggested that there are eighteen instincts. • Other theorists came up with even more—with one sociologist (Bernard, 1924) claiming that there are exactly 5, 759 distinct instincts! • Furthermore, explanations based on the concept of instincts do not go very far in explaining why a specific pattern of behavior, and not others, have appeared in a given species. • In addition, although it is clear that a significant amount of animal behavior is based on instincts, the variety and complexity of human behavior, much of which is learned, cannot be seen as instinctual.

Drive Reduction Approaches • After rejecting instinct theory, psychologists first proposed simple drive-reduction theories of motivation in its place (Hull, 1943). • Drive-reduction approaches suggest that when people lack some basic biological requirement such as water, a drive to obtain that requirement (in this case, the thirst drive) is produced.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation • Need - a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. • Drive - a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. • Drive-reduction theory - approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal. Menu

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation • To understand this approach, we need to begin with the concept of drive. • A drive is motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior in order to fulfill some need. • Many basic kinds of drives, such as hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and sex, are related to biological needs of the body or of the species as a whole. These are called primary drives. Menu

• As we will discuss later, some people have strong needs to achieve academically and in their careers. We can say that their achievement need is reflected in a secondary drive that motivates their behavior. • We usually try to satisfy a primary drive by reducing the need underlying it. • For example, we become hungry after not eating for a few hours and may raid the refrigerator, especially if our next scheduled meal is not imminent.

Drive Reduction Approaches • Drive – Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior in order to fulfill some need • Primary drive – Basic drives related to biological needs of the body or the species as a whole – those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst. • Secondary drives – Needs are brought about by prior experience and learning – those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

Drive Reduction Approaches • Homeostasis – A basic motivational phenomena that underlies primary drives and involves the body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state – the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state.

• The reason for such behavior is homeostasis, a basic motivational phenomenon underlying primary drives. • Homeostasis is the body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state. • Homeostasis operates through feedback loops that bring deviations in body functioning back to a more optimal state, similar to the way a thermostat and furnace work in a home heating system to maintain a steady temperature (see Figure 10 -1).

Summary of Drive Reduction Theory • Emphasis on homeostasis • Homeostasis - Physiological systems at equilibrium by constantly making responses to change • Analogy of thermostat • Imbalance in homeostasis creates a drive – Feeling of arousal that prompts action – Goal is to decrease that arousal

Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction • Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity. • Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. • We try to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary

• Arousal Theory – People are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimum level of bodily arousal – Studies show that too little arousal and we get bored; too much arousal and we withdraw, in an effort to lower our levels of arousal

• Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement (Berlyne, 1967; Brehm & Self, 1989). • According to arousal approaches to motivation, each of us tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity. • As with the drive-reduction model, if our stimulation and activity levels become too high, we try to reduce them.

• To account for the fact that people often seek to increase rather than reduce tension, many psychologists turn to the arousal theory of motivation. • According to arousal theory, all human beings are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimum level of bodily arousal – not too little, not too much. • Studies show that people who are put into a state of sensory restriction (blindfolded, ears plugged, and unable to move) or into a highly monotonous situation quickly become bored and crave stimulation.

• People vary widely in the optimal level of arousal that they seek out, with some people seeking out especially high levels of arousal. • For example, psychologists have hypothesized that individuals such as comic John Belushi, daredevil Evel Knievel, and bank robbers Bonnie and Clyde exhibited a particularly high need for arousal.

Arousal Approach to Motivation • Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. • – This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: easy tasks require a high-moderate level while more difficult tasks require a lowmoderate level. • Sensation seeker - someone who needs more arousal than the average person. Menu

• Focuses on the connection between physical arousal and behavior. • Yerkes–Dodson Principle –Suggests that task performance is related to arousal level • Hebb suggested that there is optimal arousal level

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LO 9. 5 Arousal approaches to motivation Menu

Incentive Theory: Motivation’s Pull • Incentive approaches to motivation – People are motivated to behave in ways that produce a valued incentive – Incentives work when we expect that we can gain the incentive and when we value the incentive – Suggests that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals or incentives

• Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals or incentives. • In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli— be they grades, money, affection, food, or sex—account for a person’s motivation. • Although theory explains why we may succumb to an incentive (like a mouth-watering dessert) even though internal cues (like hunger) are lacking, it does not provide a complete explanation of motivation, since organisms seek to fulfill needs even when incentives are not apparent.

• Thus, at the same time we seek to satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction theory), we are drawn to food that appears particularly appetizing (the pull of incentive theory). • Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and incentives may work together in motivating behavior (Petri, 1996). Copyright © The Mc. Graw-

• In contrast to the notion that people are ‘pushed’ into action by internal need states, many motivation psychologists believe that people are often ‘pulled’ by external goals, or incentives. • According to incentive theories of motivation, any stimulus object that people have learned to associate with positive or negative outcomes can serve as an incentive – grades, money, respect, ice cream works well for me! • People are motivated to behave in certain ways when they expect that they can gain the incentive through their efforts and when they value that incentive. • Recognizing that human beings set goals, make plans, and think about the outcomes they produce, motivation theorists today believe that there is a

• Incentive Theory (Behavioral and Focuses on External Stimuli): • Instinct, drive, and arousal theories stress the push of internal mechanisms. But in many cases we are pulled by our desire to achieve a goal (Forsyth, 2004). • An incentive is in evidence when external stimuli can motivate behavior through the anticipation of pleasure/comfort or the elimination of displeasure/discomfort.

Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation • Suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals • Intrinsic motivation – Causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment n Extrinsic motivation – Causes us to do something for some concrete, tangible reward

• Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals—their cognitions. • For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade. • Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. • Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment, rather than for any concrete,

• For example, when a physician works long hours because she loves medicine, intrinsic motivation is prompting her; if she works hard in order to make a lot of money, extrinsic motivation underlies her efforts. • We are more apt to persevere, work harder, and produce work of higher quality when motivation for a task is intrinsic rather than extrinsic. • In fact, providing rewards for desirable behavior actually may cause intrinsic motivation to decline and extrinsic motivation to increase, although this conclusion is controversial.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs • Maslow’s model considers different motivational needs to be ordered in a hierarchy, and it suggests that before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied (Maslow, 1970; 1987). • The model can be conceptualized as a pyramid (see Figure 10 -2) in which the more basic needs are at the bottom and the higher-level needs are at the top. • In order for a particular need to be activated and thereby guide a person’s behavior, the more basic needs in the hierarchy must be met first.

• Safety needs come next in the hierarchy; Maslow suggests that people need a safe, secure environment in order to function effectively. Physiological and safety needs compose the lower-order needs. • Only when the basic lower-order needs are met can a person consider fulfilling higher-order needs, such as the need for love and a sense of belonging, esteem, and selfactualization. • Love and belongingness needs include the need to obtain and give affection and to be a contributing member of some group or society.

Maslow’s Hierarchy Self Actualization Esteem Love and Belongingness Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Recent view of Maslow’s theory

Motivation • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Self-actualization Cognitive & Aesthetic needs Esteem Belongingness & Love Safety & Security Physiological

Copyright © The Mc. Graw-

Maslow’s Hierarchy • Self-actualization – State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way – Although at first Maslow suggested that selfactualization occurred in only a few, famous individuals, he later expanded the concept to encompass everyday people.

• For example, a parent with excellent nurturing skills who raises a family, a teacher who year after year creates an environment that maximizes students’ opportunities for success, and an artist who realizes her creative potential might all be self-actualized. • The important thing is that people feel at ease with themselves and satisfied that they are using their talents to the fullest. In a sense, achieving self-actualization produces a decline in the striving and yearning for greater fulfillment that marks most people’s lives and instead provides a sense of satisfaction with the current state of affairs (Jones & Crandall, 1991).

• The various theories of motivation (summarized in below) provide us with several different perspectives on motivation. • Which provides the fullest account of motivation? The answer is that many of the approaches are complementary, rather than contradictory. • In fact, it often is useful to employ more than one approach in order to understand motivation in a particular instance.

References • Coon, D. and Mitterer, O. J (2013). Introduction to Psychology (13 th ed). Wadsworth Cengage learning. Pp. 332 -349 • Feldman, S. R, Collins, J. E. and Green, M. J (2005). Essentials of understanding psychology (2 nd ed). Mc. Graw. Hill Ryerson. pp. 257 -276 • Kosslyn, M. S, and Rosenberg, R. (2006). Psychology in context. pearson. Pp. 449 -474 • Weiten, W. (2009). Psychology: Themes and variations (8 th ed). cengage learning. Pp. 396 -417 Dr. Richard Boateng, UGBS Slide 52