PSY 368 Human Memory Neuropsychology Memory Review for

PSY 368 Human Memory Neuropsychology & Memory Review for Exam 2

Announcements • Focus Questions for Weldon and Roediger (1987) Due Monday Today • Exam 2 Wednesday (March 28)

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease • Cortical, progressive dementia • Criteria • deficit in two or more areas of cognition, at least one of which is memory • interferes with social or occupational functioning • decline from premorbid level • gradually progressive course • rule out other causes

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease (video clip # 19, ~7 mins) • Cortical, progressive dementia • Disease is associated with the development of neuro -fibrillary tangles and plaques • To stay healthy, neurons must communicate with each other, carry out metabolism, and repair themselves. • AD disrupts all three of these essential jobs. Pet Scan of Normal Brain Pet Scan of Alzheimer’s Disease Brain

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease Preclinical AD • Signs of AD are first noticed in the entorhinal cortex, then proceed to the hippocampus. • Affected regions begin to shrink as nerve cells die. • Changes can begin 10 -20 years before symptoms appear. • Memory loss is the first sign of AD.

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease Mild to Moderate AD • AD spreads through the brain. The cerebral cortex begins to shrink as more and more neurons stop working and die. • Mild AD signs can include memory loss, confusion, trouble handling money, poor judgment, mood changes, and increased anxiety. • Moderate AD signs can include increased memory loss and confusion, problems recognizing people, difficulty with language and thoughts, restlessness, agitation, wandering, and repetitive statements.

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease Severe ADs • In severe AD, extreme shrinkage occurs in the brain. Patients are completely dependent on others for care. • Symptoms can include weight loss, seizures, skin infections, groaning, moaning, or grunting, increased sleeping, loss of bladder and bowel control. • Death usually occurs from aspiration pneumonia or other infections. Caregivers can turn to a hospice for help and palliative care.

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease • The brains of people with AD have an abundance of two abnormal structures: • Beta-amyloid plaques • Dense deposits of protein and cellular material that accumulate outside and around nerve cells An actual AD plaque • Neurofibrillary tangles • Twisted fibers that build up inside the nerve cell An actual AD tangle

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer’s disease • Relatively intact articulatory loop of WM • three types of memory problems • • WM – verbal and spatial memory impairments Episodic memory impaired (e. g. , free recall) Executive function Semantic memory is also impaired • Naming and word generation impaired in AD • Note: pure amnesics do not have the latter two impairments

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 5: Memory Processing • Chapter 6: Forgetting • Chapter 7: Implicit Memory • Chapter 8: Neuropsychology and Memory • Chapter 9: Recognition

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 5: Memory Processing • Craik & Lockhart (1972), Levels of processing (slide 16) • Craik & Tulving (1975) – good experimental evidence supporting LOP (deeper processing remembered better) (slide 17) • Transfer Appropriate Processing • Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977) – good experimental evidence supporting TAP (match of processing at encoding and retrieval more important than LOP) (slide 18 -21) • Context effects (similar context at encoding & test, better memory) • Encoding Specificity Principle (Thompson & Tulving, 1970) (slide 22 -23)

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 6: Forgetting • • Ebbinghaus and forgetting function (slide 24) Permastore (see Bahrick studies) (slides 25 -27) Retrospective vs. Prospective memory Theories of forgetting • • Failure of Consolidation Decay Context/cue mismatch Interference (retroactive and proactive) (slides 28 -29)

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 7: Implicit Memory • Implicit memory tasks (vs. explicit tasks) (slides 30 -31) • Process Dissociation Procedure (Jacoby, 1991) (slides 32 -34) • Theoretical accounts • The activation view • Multiple memory systems (slide 35) • Transfer appropriate processing • Blaxton (1989) (data vs. conceptual driven, or direct vs. indirect) (slides 36 -40) • Bias view

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 8: Neuropsychology and Memory • Methods of study (slide 41) • Neurons and the Brain (slides 42 -45) • Hippocampus • Memory Disorders • Amnesia (slide 46) • Anterograde • retrograde • Alzheimer’s Disease (today’s lecture, slides 3 -9)

Exam 2 Review • Chapter 9: Recognition • Recall vs. Recognition • Signal Detection Method (slide 47) • Single vs. dual process theories (slides 48 -51) • • Tagging Model Strength Theory Generate-Recognize Model Remember/Know Processes Model • Face Recognition (slide 52)

Level of Processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) • Considered level of processing at study to be more important for memory than intent to learn • Levels of processing = how “deeply” the item is processed • The depth of processing helps determine the durability in LTM. Level of Processing Example SHALLOW DEEP 1) Visual Form “DOG” includes the letters D, O, and G 2) Phonology Rhymes with FOG 3) Semantics (Meaning) A four-legged pet that often chases cats and chews on bones

Levels of Processing Craik and Tulving (1975) Task: • Participants viewed words and were asked to make three different types of judgments: • Visual processing (e. g. “Is LOG in upper case? ” Y/N) • Phonological (e. g. “Does DOG rhyme with LOG? ” Y/N) • Semantic (e. g. “Does DOG fit in the sentence: ‘The ___ chased the cat’? ” Y/N) • Finally, participants were asked to recognize the words they had seen before in a surprise test including both old and new words.

Transfer-appropriate processing Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) • Task: • Participants made either a phonological or semantic judgment about each item on a word list. • Study: eagle (yes/no fits clue) • Deep - The ____ is the US national bird. • Shallow - rhymes with legal • The learning was incidental: participants were not told that they would have to later recall the words. • This constrains (limits) the learning strategies used.

Transfer-appropriate processing Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) • Task: • The final test was either: • A standard recognition test for the learned words. • A rhyming recognition test for learned words • e. g. , Was a word presented that rhymed with “regal”? .

Transfer-appropriate processing Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Encoding: Recognition Rhyming test: Does ____ rhyme 63% with legal? (eagle) 49% Does ____ have 84% feathers? (eagle) 33% • Results: • Standard recognition test: Deeper processing led to better performance. • Rhyming recognition test: The shallower rhyme-based encoding task led to better performance because it matched the demands of the testing situation.

Transfer-appropriate processing Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977) Encoding: Recognition Rhyming test: Does ____ rhyme 63% with legal? (eagle) 49% Does ____ have 84% feathers? (eagle) 33% • Conclusion: • The take-home message is that when the processing at encoding matches the processing at retrieval, performance will be better. • It only makes sense to talk about a learning method’s efficiency in the context of the type of final test.

Encoding Specificity Principle Thompson and Tulving (1970) • Examined effectiveness of cue • Had people learn lists of strong or weak associates. • Strong vs. weak cues (“flower”) • Strong: bloom • Weak: fruit • Study: no cue vs. weak cue • Test: no cue, weak cue, or strong cue

Encoding Specificity Principle Thompson and Tulving (1970) • The best retrieval cue for a word like “flower” would be a strong associate like “bloom. ” “fruit” is weakly associated to “flower, ” and would be unlikely to pull it out. • Thompson and Tulving showed that this can be reversed if you change the study context.

Forgetting Memory Performance Ebbinghaus (1885) Rapid forgetting for short delays - slower for longer delays

What do we forget? • Permastore: • Describes the leveling off of the forgetting curve at long delays. • Beyond this point, memories appear impervious to further forgetting. Bahrick (1984) • Permastore • Rapid forgetting of foreign language for 3 yrs, • Then of a asymptotes (levels off) after about 2 years, • Stays fairly constant even up to 50 yrs. • The overall level of retention is determined by the level of initial learning. PERMASTORE

Permastore Bahrick, Bahrick & Wittlinger (1975) • Tested nearly 400 high-school graduates on their ability to recognize and name classmates after delays of up to 30 years. • Questions • Recall • Can you list all your classmates? • Can you name all these faces? • Recognition • Is this the name of a classmate? • Is this the face of a classmate? • Match these names and faces

Permastore Bahrick, Bahrick & Wittlinger (1975) • Tested nearly 400 high-school graduates on their ability to recognize and name classmates after delays of up to 30 years. Recognition Name Matching Results were mixed: • Relatively unimpaired: • Ability to recognize their classmates’ faces/names. Recall • Ability to match up names to the Name the picture appropriate portraits. 3. 3 mons. 47+ yrs. • Extensively impaired: • Ability to recall a name, given a person’s portrait. Conclusion: • Recall, but not recognition, of well-learned personal material, closely follows the forgetting curve first demonstrated by Ebbinghaus (1913).

How do we forget? • Retroactive Interference (RI) • Forgetting caused by encoding new traces into memory in between the initial encoding of the target and when it is tested. • Introducing a related second list of items impairs recall of the first list compared to a control condition.

How do we forget? • Proactive Interference (PI) • The tendency for older memories to interfere with the retrieval of more recent experiences and knowledge. • The number of previous learning experiences (e. g. lists) largely determines the rate of forgetting at long delays.

Memory Tasks Test Instructions incidental Study Instructions intentional indirect implicit memory expts. Levels of Processing expts. ? explicit memory expts. Implicit Memory: Often defined as "memory without awareness” • Also “Non-declarative” & “procedural” (Squire, Knowlton, & Mesen, 1993)

Implicit Memory Tasks Often defined as "memory without awareness” Perceptual Tasks Word identification Word stem completion Word fragment completion Degraded word naming Anagram solution Lexical decision Non-Verbal Tasks Picture fragment naming Conceptual Tasks Word association Object decision task Category instance generation Possible/impossible object decision Answering general knowledge questions

Mixing Measures • Tasks are not “process pure” (Jacoby, 1991) • Indirect measures of memory may be “contaminated” by intentional uses of memory • E. g. , in stem completion task, subjects might remember items from previous list and use them to complete the stems • Direct measures may be influenced by unconscious or automatic influences (Jacoby, Toth, & Yonelinas, 1993) • Process-Dissociation Procedure was developed to separate automatic (unconscious) and conscious processes

Process Dissociation Procedure Jacoby (1991) • Read a list of words – List 1 • Hear a list of words – List 2 • Two recognition tests: • Both tests include List 1, List 2 and novel words. • Inclusion = complete task with studied or any item • Respond “old” if word was on either list. • Exclusion = complete task with item NOT studied (exclude studied items) • Respond “old” only if word was on List 2.

Process Dissociation Procedure Jacoby (1991) • Can calculate C and A for each condition in the experiment • C = (Proportion of studied items in inclusion) (Proportion of studied items in exclusion) • A = (Proportion of studied items in exclusion) / (1 -C) • The C and A values are estimated as proportions - values between 0 and 1. 0 • Data • Proportion of studied items in inclusion = C + (1 -C)(A) • Proportion of studied items in exclusion = (1 -C)(A)

Multiple Memory Systems • What is a system? If you “know how to do something” Schacter and Tulving (1994) System Other Name Subsystems Characteristics Procedural Nondeclarative Motor skills Non-conscious operation (indirect) Cognitive skills Simple conditioning Simple associative learning Allows you to automatically recognize things See earlier in the semester Factual information (chpt 10) Memory of events Perceptual representation Nondeclarative Visual word form Auditroy word form Structural description Primary memory Working memory Semantic Generic Spatial Factual Relational Auditory Knowledge Episodic Visual Personal Autobiographical Event memory Conscious operation (direct)

Transfer Appropriate Process Blaxton (1989) • Goal to demonstrate • data-driven processing can affect direct tests • data-driven processing do not necessarily affect indirect tests Data-driven Conceptually-driven Direct Graphic-cued Recall Free Recall Indirect Fragment Completion General Knowledge

Transfer Appropriate Process Blaxton (1989) S’s saw or heard lists of words (key IV here) Target word: bashful • • graphic-cued recall: looks like “bushful” free recall frag completion: b_sh_u_ General knowledge: “Name one of the 7 dwarfs” Data-driven Conceptually-driven Direct Graphic-cued Recall Free Recall Indirect Fragment Completion General Knowledge

Transfer Appropriate Process Blaxton (1989) Predictions • Systems view: modality match should affect only indirect tests (if indirect tap separate system, then modality should affect them in the same way) • for both implicit tests: visual > auditory • for both explicit test: visual = auditory Data-driven Conceptually-driven Direct Graphic-cued Recall Free Recall Same pattern of results regardless of modality Indirect Fragment Completion General Visual better than auditory Knowledge for both

Transfer Appropriate Process Blaxton (1989) Predictions • TAP View: modality match should affect data-driven tasks only. (priming depends on match between study/test processing match & not on indirect vs direct): • for both data-driven tests: visual > auditory • for both conceptually-driven tests: visual = auditory Data-driven Direct Indirect Conceptually-driven Graphic-cued Free Recall Visual should General Fragment Completion be Knowledge better than auditory Visual and auditory should be about the same

Transfer Appropriate Process Blaxton (1989) Results Priming Effect (V > A) for datadriven tasks only: • indirect: frag completion • direct: graphemic-cued recall Not all indirect tests display priming effect. • Gen Know (indirect, conceptual): V = A Conclusions Support view that processing rather than system is what is important

Methods of Study • Neuroscientists typically study memory in animals • Can record electrical or chemical signals directly from individual neurons, or carefully remove small portions of the brain • Psychologists typically study memory in humans • More limited techniques • “Experiments of nature” Case studies • Lesions • Direct electrical stimulation • Neuroimaging techniques

The Neuron • • Dendrites Cell body Axon Myelin sheath Terminal buttons Synapse Billions of synapses nice reference web page

Neurons and Memory Hebbian Learning: • Cells that fire together wire together • • • Connections between neurons are weighted Weights can be changed based on feedback from later cells Basic assumption of most computational neural network models (connectionism)

Structure of the brain Other Crucial Parts • Limbic system: controls emotions and instinctive behavior (includes the hippocampus and parts of the cortex) • Thalamus: receives sensory and limbic information and sends to cerebral cortex • Hypothalamus: monitors certain activities and controls body’s internal clock • Hippocampus: where short-term memories are converted to long-term memories

Hippocampus • Important formation of new episodic memories • Important for encoding perceptual aspects of memories • Novel events, places, and stimuli • Important for declarative memory • Especially as part of medial temporal lobe • Supported by case of HM • Video (location, 1 min) • Video (damage, 7 mins)

Amnesia • Loss of memory ability - usually due to lesion or surgical removal of various parts of the brain • Relatively spared performance in other domains • A pure amnesia is relatively rare • Two broad categories: • Retrograde: loss of memories for events prior to damage • Anterograde: loss of ability to store new memories of events after damage

Signal Detection Theory • Recognition accuracy depends on: • Whether a signal (noise/target memory) was actually presented • The participant’s response INCORRECT • Thus, there are four possible outcomes: • Hits • Correctly reporting the presence of the signal • Correct Rejections • Correctly reporting the absence of the signal • False Alarms • Incorrectly reporting presence of the signal when it did not occur • Misses • Failing to report the presence of the signal when it occurred

How does Recognition work? • Two classes of theories • Single process theories - retrieval is one process regardless of task • Dual process theories - two processes needed for retrieval - can be task dependent

Dual-process theories Generate-recognize model (G-R) • Recall is made up of two processes • First, generate a set of plausible candidates for recall (Generation stage) • Second, confirm whether each word is worthy of being recalled (Recognition stage – not the same as the recognition test) • Recognition is made up of only one process • Because the experimenter provides a candidate, recognition does not need the generation stage

Dual-process theories Remember versus Know Process Model (Tulving , 1985; Gardiner, 1988) Relatively recent change in recognition methodology Does someone Specifically remember Conscious recollection of the information’s occurrence at study Just somehow know Knowing that it was on the list, but not having the conscious recollection, just a “feeling of knowing”

Dual-process theories • Remember/Know processes • Make R/K judgment for “Old” items • Remember = consciously recollect details of the item’s presentation • Know = sure an item was presented, but can’t recall any of the details of presentation • R/K differ by: • Picture superiority effect • R: P > W • K: W > P • Word frequency effect • R: L > H • K: H = L • Generation effect • R: G > R • K: R = G

Face Recognition • Evidence for special ability: (1) Prosopagnosia (2) Newborn preferences (3) Face inversion effect (4) Pop-out effect for faces