Properties of Xbar Complements Adjuncts Specifiers Xbar theory

Properties of X-bar Complements, Adjuncts, & Specifiers.

X-bar theory n Specifier Rule: XP (YP) X’ n Adjunct Rule: n Complement Rule: X’ X (WP) X’ (ZP) X’ or X’ (ZP)

Predictions? n Propose three different kinds of modifiers: F specifiers F complements F adjuncts n Is this valid? Are there really three different kinds? Do they have different properties

Formal Definitions Specifier: Daughter of XP, sister to X’ XP XP (YP) X’ YP X’ Adjunct: Daughter of X’, sister to X’ X’ X’ (ZP) X’ or X’ (ZP) X’ ZP Complement: Daughter of X’, sister to X X’ X’ X (WP) X WP

maximal projection specifier NP D the adjuncts N’ AP big N’ N’ N’ N book head N, N’, … NP are called the projections of N PP PP PP from Blackwell with the red cover of poems complement

The book of poems The book from Blackwell NP NP D the N’ N book PP of poems N’ N’ N book PP from Blackwell !quick way to distinguish complements and adjuncts in NPs (doesn’t work for other categories). Complements of N are marked with the preposition ‘of’. All other prepositions mark adjuncts. (This is not fool-proof!)

Complements always closest to head The book [of poems] [by Burns] head complement adjunct *The book [by Burns] [of Poems] head adjunct complement NP since complements are sister to head D the N’ N’ N book PP PP by burns of poems

Only one complement, multiple adjuncts n X’ (ZP) X’ or X’ (ZP) Iterative n X’ X (WP) not iterative the book of poems with the red cover from Blackwell in the bath *the book of essays of poems from Blackwell

Adjuncts can be reordered The book of poems from Blackwell with the red cover on the bus. The book of poems with the red cover from Blackwell on the bus. The book of poems with the red cover on the bus from Blackwell. ? The book of poems on the bus with the red cover from Blackwell. ? The book of poems on the bus from Blackwell with the red cover. ? The book of poems from Blackwell on the bus with the red cover. *The book from Blackwell of poems with the red cover on the bus *The book from Blackwell with the red cover of poems on the bus *The book from Blackwell with the red cover on the bus of poems (etc. )

Conjunction n The conjunction rule: Xn Conj Xn F The n Complements can be conjoined with complements: F The n book of poems and of essays Adjuncts can be conjoined with adjuncts F The n red and blue house *The red and cat book with the red cover and with a blue spine Complements cannot be conjoined with adjuncts F *The book of poems and with the red cover

One replacement n One Replacement: replace N’ with one. NP D the can be replaced by one N’ N’ N book PP PP from Blackwell of poems can NOT be replaced by one therefore an adjunct can follow ‘one’ but complements cannot!

One replacement n The book from Blackwell not the [N’one] from Oxford n *The book of poems not the one of essays u (There is a dialectal difference about the acceptability of this last sentence)

Telling complements from adjuncts You should be able to list an example or two of these on the exam

Interesting ambiguity n The English teacher F Teacher from England (adjunct reading) F Teacher of the English language (complement) NP NP D the N’ AP N’ English N teacher N’ AP English N teacher

Interesting ambiguity n The Spanish English teacher F (can n The English teacher of Spanish F (can n only have the language reading) The Canadian and English teacher F (can n only have nationality reading) The Math and English teacher F (can n only have language teacher reading) only have the nationality reading) The English one F (can only have the nationality reading)

An easy mistake to make! n When you have only one PP modifier or AP modifier, be very careful to see if it is a complement or adjunct. If it is an adjunct it must be a sister to the X’ level!!!!! NP D the this N’ is CRUCIAL!! N’ AP big N’ N banana NP D the N’ AP big N banana

The complement/adjunct distinction in VPs n John [VP often eats apples with a fork] adjunct head complement adjunct n n In VPs, the direct object is always the complement. (Almost) everything else is an adjunct. (Exception to the rule: the verbs give and put take two complements a NP and PP. ) FI gave the apple to John (both are complements) F I put the book on the table

I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart VP V’ V’ V’ V loved PP AP NP with all my heart intensely adjuncts the policeman complement

n Only 1 complement F *I n loved the policeman the fireman Reordering FI loved the policeman with all my heart intensely F I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart F *I loved intensely the policeman with all my heart F *I loved intensely with all my heart the policeman n Conjunction FI loved the policeman and the fireman F I loved the policeman intensely and with all my heart F *I loved the policemand intensely

n Do so replacement Susan loved the policemen intensely with all her heart but/and F Mary did so with her brain! F Mary did so mildly with her brain F *Mary did so the fireman

APs and PPs? ? ? n Evidence is much weaker. u very afraid of tigers adjunct head u very in complement love with himself adjunct head complement adjunct n We will assume the distinction exists here for parsimony reasons (that is, to make theory pretty)

Specifiers n n n The only element we have seen in specifiers so far is the determiner. In the next chapter, we’ll argue that even these aren’t real specifiers. Instead, we’ll argue the specifier is where subjects are generated. More on this later. For now, understand the definition (sister to X’, daughter of XP), and put determiners there.

Summary n Specifier: sister to X’, daughter of XP n Adjunct: sister to X’, daughter of X’ n Complement: sister to X, daughter of X’ n X-bar theory predicts differences in behavior between complements and adjuncts F only one complement, multiple adjuncts F complement must be closest to head F adjuncts can be reordered F conjunction F *One/did so + complement

Summary n n n Complement/Adjunct distinction hold of prehead material too. The C/A distinction capture ambiguity There is strong evidence for the C/A distinction in NPs and VPs The evidence for APs and PPs is weaker We are leaving specifiers aside for the moment as something to be dealt with later.