pronoun l 3myself ourselves yourself itself l by

代 词 pronoun

l 3）反身代词（myself, ourselves, yourself, itself等） l by oneself 亲自 for oneself 为自己 call oneself 称自己 teach oneself 自学 l help oneself to 随意吃 lose oneself 迷路 speak to oneself 自言自语 seat oneself 就 座 make oneself understood 让别人懂得 自己的意思

l 4）相互代词（each other, one another） l 5）指示代词（this, that, these, those等） l 6）疑问代词（who, what, which, whose等） l 7）关系代词（who, that, which, whose， whom等） l 8）不定代词 some, somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, nothing, all, both, neither, none, either, each, everybody, everyone, everything, other, another, much , one

No bread eaten by men is so sweet as that earned by his own labor. 此处that指代前面的bread.

A good writer is __ who can express the commonplace in an uncommon way. [A] that [B] he [C] one [D] this

1. 3 do的替代作用 do代替动词，注意数和时态的变化。 如： For him to be re-elected, what is essential is not that his policy works , but that the public believe that it does.

l The diameter of this star is nearly ten times that of the Earth. 这颗恒星的直径差不多是地球直径的十倍。 l Compare Chopin’s waltzes with those of today. 将肖邦的华尔兹舞曲同今天的华尔兹舞曲进 行比较。

2. 2 人称代词的一致 人称代词应该与它在句中所对应的名词或代词在数、 人称、性、格等方面保持一致。 l Each cigarette a person smokes does some harm, and eventually he may get a serious disease from its effect. 这里he指代前面的person。 （人称的一致）

l It was during the 1920’s that the friendship between the two American writers Hemingway and Fitzgerald reached its highest point. 这里its指代前面的两人的friendship。

l Our department was monitored by two supervisors, Bill and me. 这里me必须用宾格形式。（格的一致）

Anyone can do it if he or she tries/if they try. 如果大家都肯试试，人人都能做的。 If somebody calls, tell him/them I am out. 要是有人打电话来，告诉他/他们我出去了。 Has everyone finished his or her/their drink? 每个人都喝完酒了吗？

If one wants to be a success, one/he must work diligently. 想要成功，就必须勤奋 作。 What ought one to do when a beggar asks one/him for money? 当一个乞丐向一个人讨钱时，这个人该怎么 办？ One should do one’s/his duty. 每个人都应当尽职。

Nothing has been damaged, has it? 什么都没损坏，是不是？ Something has happened , and I want you to tell me about it. 出事了，我要你告诉我是怎么回事。 Everything is good in its season. 当令果子趁鲜卖。

This committee is/are very proud of its/their achievements, isn’t it/aren’t they? 委员会对取得的成就感到自豪，是不是？ The public says/say that nobody cares about it/them and its/their problems. 公众认为没有人关心他们和他们的问题。

l Neither Mary nor Alice has her key with her. Neither the package nor the letters have reached their destination. If either David or Janet comes , he or she will want a drink.

3. 2 当no one, everyone, each, everybody, none , anybody, someone, somebody用作主语或主语的限 定词时候, 或者anything, nothing, something , everything等不定代词作主语时候，其相应的代词 一般按照语法一致原则，采取单数形式。如：

l Everybody talked at the top of his voice. None of the boys can do it , can he? Everything is ready, isn’t it?

Exercise Four 1. The number of registered participants in this year’s marathon was half _____. A. of last years B. those of last years C. of those of last year D. that of last year’s

限定词 determiner

限定词的分类 限定词包括：①冠词；②物主限定词；③指示 限定词；④关系限定词whose, which；⑤疑问 限定词what, which, whose；⑥不定限定词no, any, some, each, every, enough, either, neither, all, both, half, several, many, much, (a) few, (a) little, other, another；⑦基数词、 序数词；⑧倍数词、分数词；⑨量词a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great∕good deal of, a large∕small amount∕quantity of, a great∕larege∕good number of

2、数量词与of连用 在上述数量词中，有些还可以接of短语连 用，具体用法如下： ⑴all, most, some, any of＋特指限定词＋复 数可数或不可数名词。比较： Most books are interesting. Most of the books are interesting. Most of my∕these∕the∕John’s books are interesting.

⑵many, a few, several, both, two, three of＋特指 限定词＋复数可数名词。比较： Many students are good at English. Many of these students are good at English. ⑶much, a little, little of＋特指限定词＋不可数名词。比 较： Much water is wasted. Much of the water is wasted. 注：以上 这些“特指限定词”包括：this, that, these, those; my, their, John’s等名词所有格；the

①His theory is rather difficult; few people understand it. ＝almost no people understand it. ②His theory is rather difficult, but a few people understand it. ③I have little interest in English, so I am very poor at it. ④I have a little interest in English, so I like learning it.

⑶ 与only或very搭配 我们只能说：only a little, only a few；而不 能说：only little, only few。但为了强调否 定意义，我们可说：very few, very little。 例如： His theory is rather difficult and _____ students can understand it. A. only few B. only a few C. only little D. only a little

4、数量词some, any ⑴ 从与名词搭配来看，some和any均可以与不可数 名词和可数名词复数连用，表示“一些”。some一 般用在肯定句中；而any一般用在否定句中。例如： ①Clint is busy. He always has some work to do. But John is lazy. He never does any work. ②Last night I was very hungry and I wanted some food to eat. But now I am not hungry and I don’t want any food to eat. ③I need some medicine to cure my cough. ④I want to buy some computer books. ⑤I don’t have any friend here.

二、冠词 1、不定冠词a, an的位置 ⑴不定冠词a用在以辅音音素（并非辅音字母）开头的名词 前；不定冠词an用在以元音音素开头的名词前。例如： ①An apple a day keeps the doctor away. ②Old Hen: Let me give you a piece of good advice. Young Hen: What is it? Old Hen: An egg a day keeps the ax away. ③Telling lies is a fault in a boy, an art in a lover, an accomplishment in a bachelor, and second-nature in a married man. ⑵An还用在发音以元音开头的单个字母前面。例如：①an SOS sign ②An L letter is in the word “letter”.

l 例如： ①Life is hard sometimes. ∕ Life is education in itself. ∕ The writer is writing a book about the life of blacks in America. ②I love music, poetry and art. ∕ I don’t like the film, but I like the music (of the film). ③Air is a colorless and tasteless gas. ∕ The air in this room is stuffy. Please open the windows. ④Books become more and more expensive. ∕ Put away the books on your desk. ⑤Pencils contain lead (铅). ∕ Who put the pencils on the desk? ⑥Sugar isn’t very good for you. ∕ Can you pass me the sugar, please? 请注意，表示特指的复数可数名词或不可数名词，他们一般 带有各种短语或从句作后置定语，以限定这些名词所指的事

3、冠词的用法 ⑴ 第一次提到的单数可数名词前面用不定冠 词a或an，这一名词再次出现则要用定冠词 the： ①A man came up to a policeman and asked him a question. The policeman didn’t understand the question, so he asked the man to repeat it. ②I had a banana and an apple. I ate the banana and gave the apple to Clint.

⑵ 在谈到说话人和听话人双方都知道的事物时，要用the。 比如在自己家的房间里，我们要说the light, the floor, the door, the window, the carpet。例如： ①Can you turn off the light, please? (＝the light in our room) ②Shut the door, please! ③How do you like the film? ④A: Do you need the car today, honey? B: Yes. I have a lot of things to do. Why don’t I drive you to work today? C: OK. But be sure to fill the car up with gas.

⑶ 表示世界上独一无二的事物：the earth, the sky, the equator, the moon, the world, the universe ⑷ 形容词或副词最高级、序数词以及only用作形容词加 名词连用时，它们前面一般要用the。例如： ①the only∕best way to cope with the problem ②This is the first time I’ve come to Beijing. ⑸ 在乐器、乐队、合唱团及流行音乐团体前加the。例如： the Beatles，the Philadelphia Orchestra，play∕learn the guitar，learn the piano 注意：运动项目前不用the。如play chess, play football (basketball, table tennis)

4、何时不用冠词 ⑴ 表示独一无二的身份前一般不用冠词。例如： ①Elizabeth Ⅱ, Queen of England ②They elected Henry chairman. ③Henry was elected chairman of the committee. ④He was elected President for the second time. ⑤She is chairman of the committee. ⑥For the first time I am king of myself.

⑷ the在一些特殊的名词前省略： 1）nature：泛指自然界（动、植物及无生命物质的世界）。例 如：in nature If you destroy nature you will suffer for it. 2）society：泛指我们在其中生活的这个社会，一般不用冠词。 例如：in society Society turns people into criminals and then locks them up. 3）space：泛指星球之间的空间时，不用冠词。例如：in space Man has just taken his first steps into space.

4）man：泛指整个人类时，不用冠词。例如：①Man conquer nature. ②From early times man has used garlic (大蒜). Through the years man has tried to cope with (处理 ) the smell of garlic. But no herb, mouthwash, chewing gum, or toothpaste seems to help much. ③That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for man. 5）history：泛指人类整个历史时，不用冠词。例如： ①History may repeat itself. ②Throughout history man has had to accept the fact that all living things must die.

⑸ 在一日三餐名词前不用冠词。例如： ①have something for breakfast ②invite somebody to dinner ③I was invited to dinner. 若在三餐名词前有形容词时，则一般加不定冠词。 例如：We often have a big lunch and a nice dinner. ⑹ 交通 具名词前不用冠词。例如：by bicycle, by boat, by car, by plane, by train, by metro (subway, tube)等。 但若用介词on，则须用冠词。on the train, on the plane, on the boat（特别注意：on foot步行，不 加冠词。）

5、school与the school 表示地点的名词如bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school∕college∕university, sea, work, office等。 当人们去这些地方做在这些地方应该做的事情时，上 述这些名词前面不加冠词。因为这时这些名词只表示 一种抽象概念，说话人并非特指具体的地点。如果我 们去这些地方不是要做特定的事情，而是由于其它原 因，则要用the。例如： ①His mother is in hospital and he has been in the hospital to take care of her. ②He is often invited to the prison to give lectures. ∕He is in prison for bribery. ③Bill Clinton came into office in 1992. ∕Bill Clinton came into the office and saw Lewinsky working there.

其它类似的还有：①to school∕college∕university (to study) ；②to church (to pray) ；③to hospital (as patients) ； ④in class，in the class 当然我们也可以用其它介词： 1) at∕from∕in∕to school∕college∕university)； 2) at∕from∕in∕to school； 3) to∕in∕into∕from church 4) to∕in∕into∕out of prison∕hospital∕bed)； 5) to∕at∕from work； 6) to∕at sea； 7) to∕in∕from∕out of town； 8) at∕from home； 9) go to sea (as sailors) ∕ go to the sea＝go to the seaside； 10) be at sea (as passengers or crew) ∕be at the sea＝be at the seaside； 11) by sea＝by ship∕ by the sea ＝by the seaside； 12) be in office∕ be in the office； 13) be out of office∕ be out of the office

6、“泛指概念”的四种表达方式 ⑴ 由以上得知，不带the的不可数名词表示泛指。例： ①I like music. ②Gold is a metal. ⑵ 由以上得知，不带the的复数可数名词表示泛指。例： ①Bananas are yellow. ②I am afraid of dogs. ⑶ “the＋单数可数名词”可以表示泛指（当然也可以表 示特指）。例如： ①The whale is the largest mammal on earth. ②The whale is dead. ③The elephant is the largest land mammal. ④The elephant over there has only one tusk.

⑷ 不定冠词“a(n)＋单数可数名词”可以表示泛指。 当然也可以含有“one”这一数量意义。注意比较： ①I ate a banana this morning. ②A banana is yellow. ③I saw a dog enter the room. ④A dog makes a good pet. ⑤A teacher should be patient with his or her students. ⑥A growing child need great nourishment. ⑦A child needs love. ＝Children need love. ＝ Any child needs love.

⑵ 中位限定词 1）种类：①冠词the, a, an。例如：all the book, half an hour, twice the size；②物主 形容词my, your, his, her, our, their。例如： all my money, all his money；③指示形容 词this, that, these, those。例如：all these problems, twice that size, four times this amount；④名词属格。例如：John’s, his father’s 2）共存性：中位限定词亦彼此排斥，不能同 时出现。例如我们不能说：my the money, our these problems

⑶ 后位限定词 1）种类：①基数词或序数词：one／first, two／second, three／third, four／fourth等等。例如：the two children, his fourth birthday；②一般序数词：next, last, previous, subsequent, other, another等。例如：my next plan, our last meeting, your previous mistakes, her subsequent response；③数量形容词：few, many, several, little, less, more等。例如：my many friends, our several achievements, the few friends that I have 2）共存性：不同于相互排斥的前位和中位限定词，后位限定 词可以同时出现在名词前。例如：my next two plans, several other people 但也有先后顺序问题： ①序数词／一般序数词+基数词：the first two weeks, during the next 50 years； ②序数词／一般序数词+数量形容词：during the past few years