Production Possibilities Schedules Modern trade theory More generalized

Production Possibilities Schedules • Modern trade theory • More generalized theory of comparative advantage • Use a production possibilities schedule • Transformation schedule © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 1

Production Possibilities Schedules • Production possibilities schedule • Various alternative combinations of two goods • A nation can produce • When all of its factor inputs • Land, labor, capital, entrepreneurship • Are used in their most efficient manner • Maximum output possibilities of a nation © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 2

FIGURE 2. 1 Trading under constant opportunity costs With constant opportunity costs, a nation will specialize in the product of its comparative advantage. The principle of comparative advantage implies that with specialization and free trade, a nation enjoys production gains and consumption gains. A nation’s trade triangle denotes its exports, imports, and terms of trade. In a two nation, two product world, the trade triangle of one nation equals that of the other nation; one nation’s exports equal the other nation’s imports, and there is one equilibrium terms of trade. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 3

Production Possibilities Schedules • Marginal rate of transformation, MRT • The amount of one product a nation must sacrifice to get one additional unit of the other product • Rate of sacrifice = opportunity cost of a product • Absolute value of the slope of production possibilities schedule • For Figure 2. 1 © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 4

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Constant opportunity costs • Straight line production possibilities schedules • Factors of production • Perfect substitutes for each other • All units of a given factor are of the same quality • Autarky • Absence of trade © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 5

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Basis for Trade • Principle of comparative advantage • Direction of Trade • Specialize and export the good with the lowest opportunity cost • Production Gains from Specialization • Production gains for both countries • Arise from the reallocation of existing resources • Static gains from specialization © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 6

TABLE 2. 4 Gains from specialization & trade: constant opportunity costs © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 7

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Consumption Gains from Trade • Trade = consumption gains for both countries • Consumption points • Outside domestic production possibilities schedules • Consume more of both goods • Terms of trade • Rate at which a country’s export product is traded for the other country’s export product • Define the relative prices of the two products © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 8

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Domestic rate of transformation • Domestic terms of trade • Slope of the production possibilities schedule • Relative prices that two commodities can be exchanged at home • Terms of trade for exports • More favorable than domestic terms of trade © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 9

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Trading possibilities line • International terms of trade for both countries • Trade triangle for a country • Exports – along the horizontal axis • Imports – along the vertical axis • Terms of trade – the slope • Complete specialization • Produce only one product © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 10

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Domestic cost ratio • Negatively sloped production possibilities schedule • Transform into a positively sloped cost‐ratio line • Outer limits for the equilibrium terms of trade • Becomes no‐trade boundary • Region of mutually beneficial trade • Bounded by the cost ratios of the two countries © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 11

International equilibrium Equilibrium terms‐of‐trade limits

FIGURE 2. 2 Equilibrium terms‐of‐trade limits The supply‐side analysis of Ricardo describes the outer limits within which the equilibrium terms of trade must fall. The domestic cost ratios set the outer limits for the equilibrium terms of trade. Mutually beneficial trade for both nations occurs if the equilibrium terms of trade lies between the two nations’ domestic cost ratios. According to theory of reciprocal demand, the actual exchange ratio at which trade occurs depends on the trading partners’ interacting demands. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 13

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Equilibrium Terms of Trade, John Stuart Mill (1806– 1873) • Add the intensity of the trading partners’ demands • Determine the actual terms of trade • The theory of reciprocal demand © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 14

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Theory of reciprocal demand • Within the outer limits of the terms of trade • Actual terms of trade are determined by the relative strength of each country’s demand for the other country’s product • Production costs determine the outer limits of the terms of trade • Reciprocal demand determines what the actual terms of trade will be within those limits © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 15

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Theory of reciprocal demand • Best applies when both nations are of equal economic size • The demand of each nation ‐ noticeable effect on market price • If two nations are of unequal economic size • The relative demand strength of the smaller nation will be dwarfed by that of the larger nation • Domestic exchange ratio of the larger nation will prevail • The small nation can export as much of the commodity as it desires © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 16

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • The importance of being unimportant • For two nations engaged in international trade • Same size, similar taste patterns • Gains from trade – shared equally between them • One nation is significantly larger than the other • Larger nation ‐ fewer gains from trade • Smaller nation ‐ most of the gains from trade © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 17

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Terms‐of‐Trade Estimates • Commodity terms of trade • Barter terms of trade • Measure of the international exchange ratio • Measures the relation between the prices a nation gets for its exports and the prices it pays for its imports © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 18

Trading Under Constant‐Cost Conditions • Improvement in a nation’s terms of trade • Rise in its export prices • Relative to its import prices • A smaller quantity of export goods sold abroad • Required to obtain a given quantity of imports • Deterioration in a nation’s terms of trade • Rise in its import prices • Relative to its export prices • Purchase of a given quantity of imports • Sacrifice of a greater quantity of exports © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 19

TABLE 2. 5 Commodity terms of trade, 2008 (2000 = 100) © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 20

Dynamic Gains From Trade • Dynamic gains from international trade • • More efficient use of an economy’s resources Higher output and income More saving, More investment Higher rate of economic growth Higher productivity Economies of large‐scale production Increased competition © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 21

Changing Comparative Advantage • Patterns of comparative advantage change over time • Productivity increases • Production possibilities schedule changes • More output can be produced ‐ with the same amount of resources • Producers ‐ need to hone their skills to compete in more profitable areas © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 22

FIGURE 2. 3 Changing comparative advantage If productivity in the Japanese computer industry grows faster than it does in the U. S. computer industry, the opportunity cost of each computer produced in the United States increases relative to the opportunity cost of the Japanese. For the United States, comparative advantage shifts from computers to autos. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 23

Trading Under Increasing‐Cost Conditions • Increasing opportunity costs • Concave production possibilities schedule • Bowed outward from the diagram’s origin • Inputs are imperfect substitutes for each other • MRT rises • Absolute slope of the production possibilities schedule © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 24

FIGURE 2. 4 Production possibilities schedule; increasing‐cost conditions Increasing opportunity costs lead to a production possibilities schedule that is concave, viewed from the diagram’s origin. The marginal rate of transformation equals the (absolute) slope of the production possibilities schedule at a particular point along the schedule. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 25

Trading Under Increasing‐Cost Conditions • Increasing‐Cost Trading Case • One country specializes in producing one good • The other country specializes in producing the other good • Specialization continues in both nations until • Relative cost of one good is identical in both nations • One country’s exports of one good are precisely equal to the other country’s imports of the good • Same domestic rates of transformation © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 26

FIGURE 3 -1 Production Frontiers of Nation 1 and Nation 2 with Increasing Costs. Salvatore: International Economics, 7 th Edition © 2001, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIGURE 3 -2 Community Indifference Curves for Nation 1 and Nation 2. Salvatore: International Economics, 7 th Edition © 2001, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Indifference curves • Indifference curves have a negative slope • Keeping satisfaction constant means giving up some of one good for more of another • Indifference curves are convex • As the consumer gets more of one good, she is less willing to give up what is left of the other • The rate of substituting one good for another is shown by the slope of the curve, the marginal rate of substitution Carbaugh, Chap. 3 29

Indifference curves • “Higher” indifference curves (those farther from the origin) represent greater levels of satisfaction • Individual preferences cannot really be added up into a “community indifference curve” but it is useful to imagine that they can for the purposes of trade theory Carbaugh, Chap. 3 30

Bringing demand into the model Indifference curves and int'l. trade 31

FIGURE 3 -3 Equilibrium in Isolation. Salvatore: International Economics, 7 th Edition © 2001, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Gains from Trade with Increasing Costs.

The Gains from Exchange and from Specialization. Salvatore: International Economics, 7 th Edition © 2001, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

FIGURE 2. 5 Trading under increasing opportunity costs With increasing opportunity costs, comparative product prices in each country are determined by both supply and demand factors. A country tends to partially specialize in the product of its comparative advantage under increasing cost conditions. © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 35

Trading Under Increasing‐Cost Conditions • Production gains • More of each good is being produced • Consumption gains • Both countries consume more of at least one good • The trade triangle • Exports, imports, and terms of trade • Same for both countries © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 36

TABLE 2. 6 Gains from specialization and trade: increasing opportunity costs © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 37

Trading Under Increasing‐Cost Conditions • Partial Specialization • Each country specialize only partially • In the production of the good in which it has a comparative advantage • Increasing costs ‐ mechanism that forces costs in two trading nations to converge • Basis for further specialization ceases to exist • Both nations will produce some of each good © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 38

Trading Under Increasing‐Cost Conditions • Partial Specialization • Not all goods and services are traded internationally • Differing tastes for products • Most products are differentiated © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 39

The Impact of Trade on Jobs • Extent to which an economy is open • Influences the mix of jobs within an economy • Can cause dislocation in certain areas or industries • Little effect on the overall level of employment © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 40

Comparative Advantage Extended to Many Products and Countries • More Than Two Products • Comparative advantage • Rank the goods by the degree of comparative cost • Each country exports the product(s) • Has the greatest comparative advantage • Each country imports the product(s) • Has greatest comparative disadvantage • Cutoff point between exports and imports • Relative strength of international demand © 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password‐protected website for classroom use 41