Problem solving active efforts to discover what must

*Problem solving: active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable *

*Problems of inducing structure: relations among numbers, words, symbols, ideas *Problems of arrangement: arranging parts of a problem to fit some criterion---solved through insight: sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based on trial and error *

*Problems of transformation: carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal *

*Well-defined problems: problems in which the initial state, the goal state, and the constraints are clearly specified *Ill-defined problems: one or more elements among the initial state and the constraints are unclearly specified *

*Irrelevant info *Functional fixedness: the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use *Mental set: when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past *Unnecessary constraints *

*Problem Space: the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem *Algorithm: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all alternatives *Like trial and error *Heuristic: a guiding principle used in solving problems or making decisions *A “rule of thumb” *

*Forming subgoals: intermediate steps *Working backward: easy w/problem w/well specified end-point *Searching for analogies *Changing the representation of the problem: change the way you look at a problem *

*Field dependence-independence: tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting yourself in space *Field dependent rely on external frames of reference *Field independent can restructure problem more easily *

*DEF: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them *Theory of bounded rationality: asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focuses on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal *

* Decisions involve choices about preferences * Additive strategy: list attributes that influence a decision * Compensatory decision models: allow attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes * Or could use a: elimination by aspects strategy * Noncompensatory decision models: do not allow some attributes to compensate for others * Used when more options and factors are added to a decision task *

*Risky decision making: making choices under conditions of uncertainty *Expected value: do you expect to gain or lose *Subjective utility: is it personally worth it to you *Subjective probability: sometimes you need to rely on your personal estimates of probabilities *

*Availability heuristic: involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease of with which relevant instances come to mind *Recalling specific instances of an event *

*Representativeness heuristic: basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event *

*People underestimate risks or probabilities *“It won’t happen to me” *

*DEF: when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone *

*DEF: when people’s belief about whether an outcome will occur changes depending on how alternative outcomes are distributed, even though the summed probability of the alternative outcomes is held constant *