Presentation Plus Understanding Psychology Copyright by The Mc

Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology Copyright © by The Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. Developed by FSCreations, Inc. , Cincinnati, Ohio 45202 Send all inquiries to: GLENCOE DIVISION Glencoe/Mc. Graw-Hill 8787 Orion Place Columbus, Ohio 43240 1

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CHAPTER FOCUS SECTION 1 Group Behavior SECTION 2 Conformity and Obedience SECTION 3 Conflict and Cooperation CHAPTER SUMMARY CHAPTER ASSESSMENT 3 Click a hyperlink to go to the corresponding section. Press the ESC key at any time to exit the presentation.

Chapter Objectives Section 1: Group Behavior • Explain that a group is a collection of people who interact, share common goals, and influence how members think and act. Explore how groups are unified by the attitudes and standards members share and their commitment to them. Section 2: Conformity and Obedience • Describe how you may engage in behavior because of direct or indirect group pressure or in response to orders given by authorities. 4 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Chapter Objectives (cont. ) Section 3: Conflict and Cooperation • Explore conflicts between groups that result because groups influence how individuals perceive and respond to situations. 5

6 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.

Reader’s Guide Main Idea – A group–a collection of people who interact, share common goals, and influence how members think and act–is unified by the attitudes and standards members share and by their commitment to them. Objectives – Define and explain different types of groups. – Describe the interactive patterns within groups. 7 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 545 of your textbook.

Reader’s Guide (cont. ) Vocabulary – group – task functions – social functions – norms – ideology – social facilitation – social inhibition – group polarization – groupthink – sociogram 8 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1 begins on page 545 of your textbook. Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology.

What Are Groups? • A group is a collection of people who interact, share common goals, and influence how members think and act. • In general, the features that distinguish a group from an aggregate (a nongroup) are interdependence, shared goals, and communication. group a collection of people who have shared goals, a degree of interdependence, and some amount of communication 9 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

What Are Groups? (cont. ) • People who congregate but do not interact are not considered a group but rather an aggregate. • Interaction is the key factor in forming a group. • Several people who interact form a group. 10 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Interdependence • To be classified as a group, a collection of people must demonstrate interdependence. • Interdependence occurs when any action by one member will affect or influence the other members. • In small groups, members usually have a direct influence on one another: one member communicates directly with another. • In larger groups, the influence may be indirect. 11 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Interdependence (cont. ) • Communication is crucial to the functions of a group. – In some cases, the communication is directed outward as a declaration of group membership. – In other instances, the communication is internal, intended primarily for group members to announce group activities. • Direct communication aids members’ feelings of belonging. 12 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Shared Goals • Group members become interdependent because they share common goals. • Groups are usually created to perform tasks or to organize activities that no individual could handle alone. 13 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Shared Goals (cont. ) • The purposes groups serve are of two general kinds: – task functions – social functions • In most groups, task and social functions are combined naturally and cannot be separated easily, although one dominates in any given group. task functions activities directed toward getting a job done 14 social functions responses directed toward satisfying the emotional needs of members Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

How Groups Are Held Together • The factors that work to hold groups together–that increase the group’s cohesiveness–include: – the attitudes and standards they share – their commitment to them 15

Norms • Unwritten rules that govern the behavior and attitudes of group members are called norms. • They include rules–shared beliefs about the correct way to behave and what to believe. norms shared standards of behavior accepted by and expected from group members 16 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Norms (cont. ) • These rules may be more like tendencies or habits. • Group members are expected to act in accordance with group norms and are punished in some way if they do not. • If the norm is very important to the group, a member who violates it may endure a more severe social reaction or may be excluded from the group. 17 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Ideology • For a group to be cohesive, members must share the same values. • In some cases, people are drawn together because they discover they have common ideas, attitudes, and goals–that is, a common ideology the set of principles, attitudes, and defined objectives for which a group stands 18 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Ideology (cont. ) • Some people are attracted to a group because its ideology provides them with a new set of goals and means for achieving them. • Leaders, heroes and heroines, rallies, books and pamphlets, slogans, and symbols all help popularize an ideology, win converts, and create feelings of solidarity among group members. 19 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Commitment • One factor that increases individual commitment is the requirement of personal sacrifice. • If a person is willing to pay money, endure hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group, he or she is likely to continue with it. • Cohesiveness will be high if members are committed to their group. • Another factor that strengthens group commitment is participation. 20 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Commitment (cont. ) • The processes that hold a group together must work both ways. – The individual must be responsive to the norms of the group, subscribe to its ideology, and be prepared to make sacrifices to be part of it. – The group must also respond to the needs of its members. – It cannot achieve cohesiveness if its norms are unenforceable, if its ideology is inconsistent with the beliefs of its members, or if the rewards it offers do not outweigh the sacrifices it requires. 21 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Types of Groups • Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and out-groups and primary and secondary groups. – When a group’s members identify with their group, they are referred to as the in-group. – The out-group includes everyone who is not a member of the in-group. • A primary group is a group of people who interact daily face-to-face. • A secondary group is a larger group of people with whom you might have more impersonal relationships. 22 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition • Social facilitation refers to the tendency to perform better in the presence of a group. • At times, however, you may perform poorly in front of crowds. • This is an example of social inhibition. social facilitation social inhibition an increase in performance in a decrease in performance front of a crowd in front of a crowd 23 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition (cont. ) • Social facilitation and social inhibition may occur because the presence of a crowd increases one’s drive or arousal. • Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) noticed that social facilitation seemed to occur when participants performed simple or well -learned tasks. • Social inhibition occurred when participants performed more complex tasks or tasks that involved unfamiliar factors to the participants. 24 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition (cont. ) • The effect of a crowd on your behavior may also be a reflection of your concern about being evaluated. 25

Interactions Within Groups • Providing an individual with values and a sense of identity is only one aspect of the group’s meaning to him or her. • The particular role he or she plays in the group’s activities is also important. • The study of the roles various members play in the group and how these roles are interrelated is the study of group structure. 26 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Interactions Within Groups (cont. ) • There are many aspects to group structure: – the personal relationships between individual members, such as liking relationships and trusting relationships – the rank of each member on a particular dimension, such as power, popularity, status, or amount of resources – the roles various members play 27 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Interactions Within Groups (cont. ) • A role is behavior expected of an individual because of his or her membership in a particular group. • Each of us has multiple roles that shift as we merge with different groups. • Occasionally, we may find ourselves in role conflict, such as if you switch schools and your old school plays your new school in football. 28 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Decision Making • Most groups must make decisions. • Group polarization and groupthink are two processes of group decision making. 29 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Decision Making (cont. ) Group Polarization • According to group polarization, the majority’s point of view is reinforced through group discussion. • If opinions of a group are equally split on an issue before a discussion, though, the group discussion usually results in compromise. group polarization theory that group discussion reinforces the majority’s point of view and shifts group members’ opinions to a more extreme position 30 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Polarization 31

Decision Making (cont. ) Groupthink • When groups emphasize sticking together and fail to adequately appraise alternative courses of action, they are guilty of groupthink. • Group members may refrain from criticizing one another, and they may not discuss opposing viewpoints or critically evaluate the situation. groupthink poor group decision making that occurs as a result of a group emphasizing unity over critical thinking 32 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Decision Making (cont. ) How to Improve Group Decision Making • Leaders should avoid strongly advocating their own views and, instead, encourage group discussion. • During discussion, group members should hear all viewpoints and challenge one another’s views. • Also, group members should focus on the task–the issue to be discussed or the problem to be resolved. 33 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Decision Making (cont. ) How to Improve Group Decision Making • Group members should not focus on group unity when making decisions. • They should focus on keeping the lines of communication open and gathering enough information to make an unbiased decision. 34 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Communication Patterns • When studying groups, social psychologists use a technique called the sociogram to analyze group structure. • Sociograms can help psychologists predict how that individual is likely to communicate with other group members. sociogram a diagram that represents relationships within a group, especially likes and dislikes of members for other members 35 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Communication Patterns (cont. ) • Another way to discover the structure of a group is to examine the communication patterns in the group–who says what to whom and how often. • A centralized organization seems more useful for task-oriented groups, whereas a decentralized network is more useful in socially oriented groups. 36 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Sociograms 37

Leadership • All groups, whether made up of students, workers, Girl Scouts, or politicians, have leaders. • A leader embodies the norms and ideals of the group and represents the group to outsiders. • Within the group, a leader initiates action, gives orders, makes decisions, and settles disputes. 38 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Leadership (cont. ) • Most of us think of leadership as a personality trait. • One psychologist (Stogdill, 1974) identified leadership as being an aspect of personality–the ability to get people to comply. • Other researchers (Blake & Mouton, 1985) argue that leaders are concerned to some degree with both output (that is, the task) and the welfare of the people. 39 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Leadership (cont. ) • Another way to think of leadership is as the end product of the reinforcements of the group being led (Berry & Houston, 1993). • In this way, leadership is simply the center or focus of group action, an instrument for achieving the group’s goal or a result of group interaction (Stogdill, 1974). • Different circumstances call for different kinds of leaders. 40 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Leadership (cont. ) • One kind of leadership is called transformational leadership. • This leadership produces large-scale organizational change by changing the goals of group members and deepening their commitment. • Transformational leaders are charismatic, they provide individualized attention to group members, and they are able to enthuse and intellectually stimulate group members. 41 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Leavitt’s Communication Network System 42

Leadership (cont. ) Leadership Styles • The three leadership styles are authoritarian, laissez-faire, and democratic. – An authoritarian leader makes all the decisions and assigns tasks to group members. – A laissez-faire leader is only minimally involved in a group’s decision making. – A democratic leader encourages group members to come to decisions through consensus. 43 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section Assessment Review the Vocabulary Explain how groups organized for task functions differ from those organized for social functions. Task function groups exist to get the job done. Social function groups exist to fulfill the emotional needs of members. 44 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic organizer similar to the one found on page 554 of your textbook, identify and describe three styles of leadership. Authoritarian leaders make all the decisions and assign tasks. Laissez-faire leaders are minimally involved and let the group make its own decisions. Democratic leaders encourage groups to make decisions through consensus. 45 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Recall Information What is the difference between an in-group and an out-group. Give an example of each group. In-group members identify with their group. All non-members of the group are the out-group. An example is an athletic team that considers all people who are not starters on the team as the out-group. 46 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Think Critically When might a group benefit from a laissez-faire style of leadership? When might a group benefit from authoritarian leadership? Answers will vary. 47 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) What kind of interaction occurs with each model? Explain why the Circle network is slower but more satisfying than the Wheel network for solving tasks. 48 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

49 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.

Reader’s Guide Main Idea – You may engage in behavior because of direct or indirect group pressure or in response to orders given by authorities. Objectives – Identify ways that groups can influence an individual’s behavior. – Explain why most people tend to obey authority figures. 50 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2 begins on page 555 of your textbook.

Reader’s Guide (cont. ) Vocabulary – conformity – obedience Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. 51 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2 begins on page 555 of your textbook.

Group Pressure to Conform • Psychologist Solomon Asch (1952) designed what has become a classic experiment to test conformity to pressure from one’s peers. • Conformity involves any behavior that you engage in because of direct or indirect group pressure. conformity acting in accordance with some specified authority 52 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Pressure to Conform (cont. ) • Asch found that people may conform to other people’s ideas of the truth, even when they disagree. • Asch found that almost one-third of his 50 participants conformed at least half the time to the viewpoint of five hired actors. • These conformers he called the “yielders. ” • Asch called those who did not conform “independents. ” 53 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Pressure to Conform (cont. ) • According to one theory, most children are taught the overriding importance of being liked and of being accepted. • Conformity is the standard means of gaining this approval. 54 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Asch’s Experiment These two cards were shown to participants in one trial of Asch’s experiment on conformity. The participant’s task was to determine whether the length of the standard line matches the length of the comparison lines. The actual discrimination is easy. 55

Why Do People Conform? • One of the most important findings of Asch’s experiment was that if even one person among the first five actors failed to conform to the group’s judgment, the participant was able to stick to his own perceptions. • It seems that it is hardest to stand alone. • Later researchers have shown that under some conditions, a minority view can come to win over the larger group (Moscovici, 1985). 56 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Why Do People Conform? (cont. ) • A minority dissenter may also serve an informational purpose by making others question whether the majority view is actually right. • In Asch’s experiment, participants conformed–they responded to match the other group members’ responses, yet they might not have actually changed their beliefs that the lines matched. • This is an example of compliance. 57 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Why Do People Conform? (cont. ) • Compliance occurs when we give in to social pressure in our public behavior; however, we do not actually change our private beliefs. • A method of gaining compliance is the foot -in-the-door technique. • This occurs when you get a person to agree to a relatively minor request. • This minor request, which the participant is likely to agree with, is really a set-up for a major request. 58 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Why Do People Conform? (cont. ) • There are several factors that increase conforming behavior in people including: – belonging to a group that emphasizes the role of groups rather than individuals – the desire to be liked by other members of the group – low self-esteem – social shyness – lack of familiarity with a task – group size – cultural influences 59 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Obedience to Authority • The influence other people have on your attitudes and actions is considerable. • Obedience, or behavior in response to orders given by authorities, can be either useful or destructive. • Psychologists are more interested in the negative aspects of obedience a change in attitude or behavior brought about by social pressure to comply with people perceived to be authorities 60 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Obedience to Authority (cont. ) • They know from cases in history such as German Nazism and American atrocities in Vietnam that individuals frequently obey irrational commands. • In fact, people often obey authority even when obedience goes against their conscience and their whole system of morality. 61 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Milgram Experiment • Psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted the most famous investigation of obedience in 1963. • Milgram wanted to discover how far participants in an experiment would follow his instructions and how much electric shock they would be willing to give a fellow human being. 62 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Milgram Experiment (cont. ) • As the experiment began, the “learner” continually gave wrong answers, and the “teacher” began to administer the prescribed shocks from an impressivelooking shock generator. • The generator had a dial that ranged from 15 volts, which was labeled “Slight Shock, ” to 450 volts, which was labeled “Danger: Severe Shock. ” • After each of the learner’s mistakes, the teacher was told to increase the voltage by one level. 63 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Milgram Experiment (cont. ) • As the experiment progressed, the learner made many mistakes, and the teacher was instructed to give increasingly severe shocks. • The experiment ended either when the maximum 450 volts was administered or when the teacher refused to administer any more shocks. • If at any point the teacher indicated that he wanted to stop, the experimenter calmly told him to continue. 64 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Milgram Experiment (cont. ) • Sixty-five percent of the participants delivered the full range of shocks. • What accounts for this surprisingly high level of obedience? • Part of the answer is that the experimenter represents a legitimate authority. • People assume that such an authority knows what he is doing, even when his instructions seem to run counter to their own standards of moral behavior. 65 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Milgram Experiment (cont. ) • Milgram’s experiment is important because it questions so many different aspects of psychology. • The experiment raised questions about the ethics of some psychological experiments. • Since the experiment, the APA has changed the ethical standards for experiments. • Today all experiments, especially those that could cause harm to the participants, are carefully screened by research committees. 66 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Zimbardo Experiment • Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues (Haney & Zimbardo, 1975) performed an experiment that randomly divided male volunteers into two groups: “prisoners” and “prison guards. ” • Zimbardo sent both groups to live in a simulated “prison” set up in the basement of a Stanford University building. • He gave the guards instructions to maintain order. 67 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Zimbardo Experiment (cont. ) • Within two days, most of the guards had become intoxicated with power, and they acted cruelly toward the prisoners, often without reason. • At the same time, the prisoners began showing signs of extreme stress, often acting subdued and depressed. • The emotional reactions were so extreme that experimenters ended the planned two -week experiment after only six days. 68 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Zimbardo Experiment (cont. ) • Although the participants in this experiment were emotionally mature and stable, the roles these individuals adopted changed the way they acted. • The experiment not only changed the ethical standards of experimentation in psychology but it also demonstrated the power that situations can have in changing how we feel, think, and behave. • The social situation of being in the prison changed the rules, roles, and expectations of the students (Zimbardo, 1975). 69 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The Zimbardo Experiment (cont. ) Why Do People Obey? • Psychologists have proposed that people learn to obey authority figures. • Throughout our lives, we have learned to follow orders. • However, we are more likely to follow these rules when the authority figure is actually present. 70 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section Assessment Review the Vocabulary Give an example of a way you show conformity. Answers will vary. Think of useful ways to conform, as well as ways that can lead to poor decision making or harmful behavior. 71 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Visualize the Main Idea Duplicate and complete the chart found on page 562 of your textbook describing the Asch experiment. Hypothesis: People will conform to a group decision even if they know it is wrong. Method: Describe the various trials and the results of each trial. Results: Describe the results of yielders and independents. 72 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Recall Information How is compliance related to to conformity? Compliance is a change in behavior without an accompanying change in thinking. Outwardly, the person appears to be conforming. 73 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Think Critically Do you think that conforming to a group is always a negative thing to do? Explain. No. Some examples include wearing coats in cold weather and abiding by society’s traffic regulations. 74 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Recently in a college dorm 3 people died in a fire. Although the alarm sounded, there had been 18 false alarms in the same dorm in the four months preceding the fire. How can something like repeated false alarms dull the senses to the point that antisocial or harmful behavior seems acceptable? 75

76 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.

Reader’s Guide Main Idea – Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday life because groups influence how individuals perceive and respond to situations. Objectives – Explain causes of group conflict and cooperation. – Summarize how group dynamics promote or restrain altruism and aggression. 77 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3 begins on page 564 of your textbook.

Reader’s Guide (cont. ) Vocabulary – aggression – catharsis – altruism – diffusion of responsibility – bystander effect – social loafing – deindividuation Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. 78 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3 begins on page 564 of your textbook.

Aggression • Any behavior that is intended to cause physical or psychological harm is called aggression. • It seems that our society is being torn apart by increasing violence and aggression. • Psychologists have proposed several theories to explain aggression behavior intended to do physical or psychological harm to others 79 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

A Model of Aggression 80

Biological Influences • Psychologists have proposed that humans have innate biological factors that cause aggression. • Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, influence a person’s aggressive behavior. • When a person has too much serotonin in the brain, he or she may experience violent outbursts. • Psychologists, though, warn against labeling aggression as caused by only biological factors. 81 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Cognitive Factors • Psychologist Albert Bandura proposes that children learn aggressive behavior by observing and imitating their parents. • His social learning theory also proposes that aggressive behavior may be reinforced in several ways: – Parents who use aggression to discipline their children may be teaching their children to use aggression. – The media–television, movies, video games, and music–may also be teaching aggressive behavior to children. 82 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Personality Factors • Certain personality traits, such as impulsiveness and having little empathy, combined with favoring domination can turn a person into a bully. • Usually past experience is the best predictor. • An aggressive child usually becomes an aggressive adult. 83 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Environmental Factors • Sometimes something provokes you and you become violent. • Psychologists explain acts of violence that arise from unexpected situations with the frustration-aggression hypothesis. • This is the idea that frustration or a failure to obtain something expected leads to aggression. • The hypothesis, though, fails to note that frustration does not always lead to aggressive behavior. 84 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Environmental Factors (cont. ) • Leonard Berkowitz (1989) proposed a modified frustration-aggression hypothesis. • Berkowitz proposed that frustration leads to aggression only in certain instances. 85 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Controlling Aggression • Aggression is a combination of biological, cognitive, personality, and environmental factors. • One method of controlling aggression is through catharsis. • Critics of catharsis believe that any expression of aggression is negative. catharsis releasing anger or aggression by letting out powerful negative emotions 86 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Controlling Aggression (cont. ) • Other strategies of controlling aggression include punishing children for violent behavior and cutting down on the violence they observe. • Aggressive behavior can be controlled by teaching people to accept frustrations and move on and to react to disappointments in ways other than violence. 87 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Conflict Versus Cooperation • Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday life. • A group of psychologists (Sherif & Hovland, 1961) created a boys’ camp to study intergroup relations. • From the beginning of the experiment, the boys were divided into two groups. • The psychologists had hypothesized that when these two groups of boys were placed in competitive situations, where one group could achieve its goals only at the expense of the other, hostility would develop. 88 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont. ) • The psychologists demonstrated the ease with which they could produce unity within the two boys’ groups and hatred between them. • The experimenters then tried to see what might end the conflict and create harmony between the two groups. • They deliberately invented a series of “emergencies” so that the boys either would have to help one another or lose the chance to do or get something they all wanted. 89 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Conflict Versus Cooperation • Gradually, through cooperative activities, intergroup hostility and tensions lessened. (cont. ) • The results of this experiment showed that the crucial factor in eliminating group hostility was cooperation. • The question of conflict applies to large communities, too, but then the possibility of a social trap is greater. • A social trap occurs when individuals in a group decide not to cooperate. 90 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Conflict Versus Cooperation • One approach to overcome a social trap is to use laws to bring about behavior changes. (cont. ) • Other ways to change people’s behavior is to educate them concerning the issues and to communicate the idea that “Yes, you do make a difference. ” • In this way, people find it more beneficial to cooperate than to act in a purely selfish manner. 91 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Altruism • Altruism means helping another, often with a risk to oneself, for reasons other than the expectation of a reward. • Whether you help or not may depend on the diffusion of responsibility. altruism helping others, often at a cost or risk, for reasons other than rewards 92 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility • Sometimes when several people are faced with a common problem and there is no opponent, they may not even see themselves as a group. • There have been many famous examples of muggings, rapes, and murders that were committed in public while a large group of people watched without intervening or calling for help. • Psychologists have tried to find out why these people did not act by studying artificial crises. 93 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) • Psychologists have suggested that this behavior was the result of diffusion of responsibility. • In other words, because several people were present, each participant assumed someone else would help. diffusion of responsibility the presence of others lessens an individual’s feelings of responsibility for his or her actions or failure to act 94 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) • The researchers found that in experiments where people could see the other participants, the same pattern emerged. • The bystander effect occurs when a person refrains from taking action because of the presence of others. bystander effect an individual does not take action because of the presence of others 95 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) • These findings suggest that the larger the crowd or group of bystanders, the more likely any given individual is to feel that he or she is not responsible for whatever is going on (Darley & Latané, 1968). • Another influence that inhibits action is the tendency to minimize the need for any response. • It is easier to persuade yourself that nothing needs to be done if you look around and see other people behaving calmly. 96 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) • Both the presence of a leader and being familiar with the person needing help, however, increase the likelihood and speed of help being offered. • The same is true of knowing what kind of help is required, seeing the correct form of assistance being modeled, or expecting future interactions with the person needing help. • These situations increase the chances that assistance will be offered when it is most needed (Baron & Byrne, 1991). 97 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) Social Loafing • Your evaluations of a situation also may lead to social loafing. • Social loafing occurs when you allow your contributions to the group to slack off because you realize that individual contributions are not as apparent and easily measured in a group setting. social loafing the tendency to work less hard when sharing the workload with others 98 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) Deindividuation • When people act as individuals, obey their consciences, and are concerned with self-evaluation, we think of them as individualistic. • When deindividuation occurs, people lose their sense of self and follow group behaviors. deindividuation individuals behave irrationally when there is less chance of being personally identified 99 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Diffusion of Responsibility (cont. ) Deindividuation • The deindividuated person acts without thinking about self and goes along with the group. • Researchers believe that being in a crowd may reduce feelings of guilt or selfawareness that one ordinarily feels. • Social pressure can affect us in positive ways, too. • Maybe you went out of your way to act compassionately while others witnessed your actions. 100 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section Assessment Review the Vocabulary How does diffusion of responsibility affect individuals in a group? Individuals are less likely to act and take responsibility when others are around because they expect someone else to act. 101 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one shown on page 570 of your textbook, compare and contract aggression and altruism. Aggression is intended to do physical or psychological harm. Altruism is the act of helping others without expecting a reward, and it may involve risk. The overlap exists in that both acts are voluntary and involve a choice by the individual. 102 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Recall Information What is deindividuation, and how does it occur? Deindividuation is irrational behavior performed by an individual when there is little or no chance of being identified. It occurs when people lose their sense of self and let the group direct their behavior. 103 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Think Critically Do you think that most students work harder on projects they must complete alone for a grade or on team projects in which no individual grades are given? Explain your reasoning. Answers will vary and will likely depend on the individual and the amount of pressure exerted by the group. 104 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Section Assessment (cont. ) Why did you help or not help when your fellow classmate accidentally dropped his or her belongings? 105

106 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.

Section 1: Group Behavior • To be classified as a group, a collection of people must demonstrate interdependence. • Groups serve two general purposes: task functions and social functions. • To be part of a group, an individual must be responsive to the norms of the group, subscribe to its ideology, and be prepared to make sacrifices in order to be part of it. • Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and out-groups and primary and secondary groups. 107 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section 1: Group Behavior (cont. ) • Research has shown that social facilitation seems to occur when participants perform simple tasks, whereas social inhibition seems to occur when participants perform more complex tasks. • Group polarization and groupthink are two processes of group decision making. 108 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section 2: Conformity and Obedience • Psychologists believe that people conform to gain approval. • Compliance occurs when an individual gives in to social pressure in his or her public behavior but does not actually change private beliefs. • Psychologists believe that people conform because they learn to obey authority figures and to follow orders and rules. 109 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section 3: Conflict and Cooperation • Aggression is a combination of biological, cognitive, personality, and environmental factors. • Psychologists have found that the larger the crowd or group of bystanders, the more likely any given individual is to feel that he or she is not responsible for whatever is going on. 110 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Section 3: Conflict and Cooperation (cont. ) • Social loafing occurs when people allow their contributions to the group to slack off because they realize that individual contributions are not as apparent and easily measured in a group setting. • When deindividuation occurs, people lose their sense of self and follow group behaviors. 111 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

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Reviewing Vocabulary Use the correct term or concept to complete the following sentences. 1. ________ Group polarization occurs when the majority’s point of view is reinforced an extreme view dominates. 2. A behavior that is intended to cause physical or psychological harm is called _____. aggression 3. A group with a common _____ ideology shares a set of principles, attitudes, and defined objectives for which the group stands. 4. _____ Conformity involves any behavior that an individual engages in because of direct or indirect group pressure. 113 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

Reviewing Vocabulary (cont. ) Use the correct term or concept to complete the following sentences. 5. The tendency to perform poorly in front of a group is known as _______. social inhibition 6. _______ Deindividuation occurs when people lose their sense of self and follow group behaviors. 7. Punching a pillow to release anger is a form of _____. catharsis 8. The tendency to perform better in the presence of a group is known as _______. social facilitation Obediance is behavior in response to orders 9. _____ given by authorities. 114 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

Reviewing Vocabulary (cont. ) Use the correct term or concept to complete the following sentences. 10. The _______ bystander effect occurs when a person refrains from taking action because of the presence of others. 115 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Recalling Facts Using a diagram similar to the on page 573 of your textbook, identify the characteristics of a group. Characteristics of a group are interdependence, shared goals, and communication. 116 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Recalling Facts What factors work to hold a group together? What factors increase the commitment of a person to the group? Shared norms, a common ideology, and high commitment and participation of group members work to hold a group together. Commitment increases when the individuals can share in group decisions and share the rewards and when there is a requirement of personal sacrifice. 117 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Recalling Facts Why do people conform? People conform to increase their sense of belonging to a group and to avoid standing out. 118 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Recalling Facts How does the cognitive theory explain aggression? The cognitive theory assumes aggression is learned in childhood by observing and imitating the behavior of models. 119 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Recalling Facts What are two factors that inhibit individual action within a group setting? Diffusion of responsibility and the bystander effect inhibit individual action within a group setting. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when the presence of others lessens an individual’s feelings of responsibility. When a person refrains from taking action because of the presence of others, it is known as the bystander effect. 120 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Building Skills Interpreting a Graph Milgram was upset about the willingness of his participants to obey an authority. In later experiments, he tried to find ways to reduce obedience. He found that distance between the teacher and the learner had an effect. The graph on the next slide shows the percentage of “teachers” who obeyed orders at three different physical distances. Review the graph, then answer the questions following. 121

Building Skills Interpreting a Graph 122

Building Skills Interpreting a Graph What percentage of teachers obeyed orders when they could only hear the learner? 65 percent of teachers obeyed orders when they could only hear the learner. 123 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Building Skills Interpreting a Graph What happened to the percentage of teachers who obeyed orders when they were in the same room and could see the learner? When they were asked to touch the learner? The percentage declined to 40 percent and 30 percent, respectively. 124 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

Building Skills Interpreting a Graph What reasons can you give for the differences in the percentage of participants obeying authority in the three physical distances illustrated in the graph? The better one knows a person or the closer one physically is to a person, the less likely one will be to harm that person. It could be said that it is easier to harm another when you don’t have to witness the consequences. 125 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

I have just been hired by a large company that was once a leader in its markets but has not kept up with the changes in technology. I have been told that I have three years to make the company profitable. What kind of leader do I need to be? I need to be a transformational leader 126 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

127 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.

Explore online information about the topics introduced in this chapter. Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web site, manually launch your Web browser and go to http: //psychology. glencoe. com 128

Think of the groups to which you belong– your family, your friends, the band, a sports team, and so on. What effect do these groups have on how you think, act, and feel? Pick one group to which you belong and, in your journal, describe any influences this group has over you. 129

Write your thoughts on the following question: Can a group formed for a task function become a group with a social function and vice versa? 130

Write about times that you have seen the foot-in-the-door technique used to gain compliance. If possible include examples of solicitation letters that you have received that demonstrate this technique. 131

Write about an incident in which you used aggression to resolve a conflict. Then write about an incident in which you controlled your aggression. Compare the results and your feelings about the two incidents. 132

Your Stripes or Your Morality Read the case study presented on page 563 of your textbook. Be prepared to answer the questions that appear on the following slides. A discussion prompt and additional information follow the questions. Continued on next slide. 133 This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality Why did Rockwood refuse to conform to group pressure? His moral principles took precedence over his orders. He could not obey his orders to not help Haitian prisoners who were being mistreated and tortured. Rockwood felt it was morally wrong to deny his fellow human beings the help they needed. Continued on next slide. 134 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality Does this case study support the findings of Milgram and Asch? Explain. The Asch and Milgram studies provide examples of people conforming and obeying an authority figure. The case of Lawrence Rockwood is an example of someone unwilling to conform and obey because of strong moral beliefs. So no, this case study does not support Milgram and Asch’s findings. Continued on next slide. 135 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality Critical Thinking Under what circumstances might Rockwood have obeyed his orders? Do you think that conformity depends upon the situation or the person? Or both? Explain your answer. Continued on next slide. 136 This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality Discuss the following: How was Rockwood’s situation similar to the participants’ situation in the Asch experiment? How was it different? What dilemma did Rockwood face? What was his decision? What was the military’s response? Do you think Rockwood made a wise decision? Explain. Continued on next slide. 137 This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces unanimously upheld Rockwood’s conviction. They did not find any significant procedural or international law violations. In their opinion, Walter T. Cox, the chief judge for the Court of Appeals, wrote: “The difference between a military organization and a mob is the role of command control in channeling, directing and restraining human behavior. ” Continued on next slide. 138 This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

Your Stripes or Your Morality – Rockwood’s lawyers announced in 1999 that he is appealing his conviction to the U. S. Supreme Court. – He faces two challenges. First his lawyers must convince the Supreme Court to hear his case. – Then they must convince the nine justices to overturn the $3, 000 fine and discharge. 139 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. This feature is found on page 563 of your textbook.

140 Continued on next slide.

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Answers: 1. A group has the following traits: interdependence, shared goals, and communication. 2. Each member will be affected by the actions of the other members. 4. It is possible that a group is held together by an agreement on standards of behavior, a share commitment, as well as shared ideas and goals. 143 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers. 3. They help you do things (task functions) and they fulfill emotional needs (social functions).

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Answers: 1. Pastor–moral authority; military– commands troops; physician–provides medical advice 2. Pastor– congregation; military–lower ranks; physician– patients 3. Society recognizes their authority and respect is often taught by parents. 4. Yes, we should be limited by moral principles of decent or right actions. 145 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

146 Continued on next slide.

Answers: 1. Individuals in a group decide not to cooperate. 2. Both the individual and the group are harmed by a social trap. 3. Possible solutions include: laws to regulate behavior and education to change behavior. 147 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

Stereotypes From the Classroom of James Murray St. Francis Indian School, St. Francis, SD Break into groups of three or four people. Your teacher will be presenting each of the groups a picture. As a group write down your basic assumptions of the people in the pictures. When you have completed your list, discuss as a class the questions on the next slide. Continued on next slide. 148 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Stereotypes From the Classroom of James Murray St. Francis Indian School, St. Francis, SD Review your list of assumptions and the picture. What parts of the photograph led you to the assumptions that you made? Discuss what stereotyping is and its effects. Identify examples of stereotyping that you encounter in everyday life. Write a reflective essay on how stereotyping affects your life. Include examples of stereotypes that you have of others, and what stereotypes others have of you. 149 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

When the Milgram experiment was altered so that the participants saw two other supposed participants refuse to continue, only 10 percent gave the highest level of shock. 150

National Crime Victimization Survey Professional Athletes 151 Click a hyperlink to go to the corresponding slide.

A 1995 National Crime Victimization Survey found that more than half of rape victims were under 18 years old. The survey also reported that 85 percent of rape victims were sexually assaulted by a family member or acquaintance. Only about one-third of rapes are reported to the police. 152

Professional athletes are paid high salaries and their actions frequently earn them the public’s perception as self-centered and spoiled. However, some professional athletes, like basketball star David Robinson and football greats Steve Young and Darrell Green, demonstrate altruism by giving their time, money, guidance, and encouragement to various charitable causes. 153

The United States is a country made of a wide variety of ethnic groups, most of whom came as immigrants. Using 1990 census data, Gregory Rodriguez of Pepperdine University studied efforts that recent immigrants made to fit into the norms of American life. He examined several areas of commitment to norms including acquiring citizenship, learning English, and buying a home. Continued on next slide. 154

He found that 75 percent of the immigrants who had been in America for at least 40 years had become citizens. The same percentage had learned English within 10 years of coming to the United States. In addition, within 20 years of coming to this country, more than 60 percent owned their own home. His conclusion is that the majority of immigrants accept the cultural norms of America. 155

Control Groups When conducting experiments, researchers use an experimental group and a control group. Research on social facilitation usually uses people performing tasks alone as the control group. In a 1998 study, psychologists demonstrated that people who are assigned some task to perform alone will infer that they are being monitored. Since they assume they are being monitored, they should not be used as a control group to test theory that people perform better in the presence of a group. 156

Online Communities Group Polarization 157 Click a hyperlink to go to the corresponding slide.

Online Communities • Online communities are a new type of group that allows members who share a common goal or interest to meet on the Internet. • Like many groups, online communities face the challenge of membership commitment. • These communities often have a core of supporters and many members who are rarely, if ever, involved in the group. • Online communities never meet face-to-face, and they can request membership participation but can do little if members choose not to participate. Continued on next slide. 158 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Online Communities • In addition, technical problems can discourage even interested members. • However, as technology advances, more people will find themselves participating in online communities. • What can online communities do to encourage membership participation? 159 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Group Polarization • Studies of group polarization in the 1960 s showed that groups will make riskier decisions than individuals in the group. • However, more recent studies have shown that the group decision will become stronger in whichever direction the individuals tended. • For example, if the individuals in the group independently favor a conservative position, the group as a whole will likely take an even more conservative position than the individuals in the group. • Why do groups tend to take more extreme positions than the individual group members? 160 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Conflict Resolution • Many companies have restructured their workplace environments into self-directed work teams. • People on these teams work closely together to accomplish specific team goals. • When people work closely together, conflicts are likely to arise. • One critical ingredient to successful teamwork is the team’s ability to resolve conflict among team members. Continued on next slide. 161 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

Conflict Resolution • Training in conflict resolution helps all team members learn that conflicts can be resolved constructively. • They also learn that the resolution of conflicts can lead to stronger, more dynamic teams. • Why do conflicts arise in the workplace? How can teams help resolve conflicts constructively? 162 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

• Observe the interactions within a small group in your community or perhaps a group with which you are affiliated. • Interview each member in the group to learn with whom you are most likely to interact. • Then analyze the group’s hierarchical structure and represent it by constructing a sociogram like the ones pictured on page 553 of your textbook. • Present your finished sociograms to the class and explain the interactions that they represent. 163 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

• At different times and in different situations we all make conscious choices to conform or not conform. • Observe intentional acts of conformity and nonconformity that you encounter in a specific 12 -hour period. • Do not to reveal the identity or personal details of the people you observe. Continued on next slide. 164 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

• However, keep a list of the conforming and nonconforming behaviors and the evidence you have to support your findings. • How many acts of conformity did you notice during the observation period? • How many acts of nonconformity? • How did you identify each? 165 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

The National Center for Education Statistics reported the following statistics from a 1997 survey of 1, 234 public schools around the country. – Ten percent of the schools had experienced one or more serious violent crimes in the past year. Serious violent crimes ranged from robbery to murder. – The number of schools reporting at least one less serious violent episode ranged from 45 percent for elementary schools to 77 percent for high schools. – More than 75 percent of schools have a formal violence prevention or reduction. Continued on next slide. 166 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

• What factors trigger violence in schools? • What can be done to prevent violence in schools? • What security measures would you recommend for high schools? 167 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

• Read the Psychology and You feature on page 549 of your textbook. • Discuss the following: Are the norms discussed in the feature universal or culturally based? How do social norms vary among cultures? Do social norms vary from generation to generation? 168 Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

End of Custom Shows WARNING! Do Not Remove This slide is intentionally blank and is set to auto-advance to end custom shows and return to the main presentation. 169

170 Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.