Preliminaries Rome founded in 753 B C NOTA

Preliminaries: Rome founded in 753 B. C. -NOTA BENE: For the Romans, this date marks the beginning of recorded time. Thus, Romans give dates as a. UC, ab urbe condita. Rome is ruled by a series of Seven Kings until 509 B. C.

Preliminaries – Expulsion of the Tarquins The violation of Lucretia at the hands of Sextus Tarquinius leads to the end of the monarchy. Tarquinius Superbus is expelled from Rome in 509 B. C. Rex becomes a dirty word.

Per hunc. . . castissimum ante regiam iniuriam sanguinem iuro, vosque, di, testes facio me L. Tarquinium Superbum cum scelerata coniuge et omni liberorum stirpe ferro igni quacumque dehinc vi possim exsecuturum, nec illos nec alium quemquam regnare Romae passurum.

Preliminaries – Establishment of Republican Government Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus become Rome’s first consuls. This initiates The Republic in Rome, lasting from 509 BC to either 31 BC (or 27 BC). Consuls: -Consuls are executive magistrates; there are two for each year -A consul’s term lasts for one year -If a regularly elected consul (consul ordinarius) dies in office, he is replaced by a consul suffectus. -Consuls are invested with imperium -As symbols of imperium, consuls are attended by 12 lictors carrying fasces

Preliminaries – The Origin of Gallic Fears Brennus leads a Gallic invasion of Italy in 390 BC, and captures Rome in 387 BC. “Vae victis!”

The Defeat of Brennus: Marcus Furius Camillus returns from exile and heroically slaughters the Gauls. Camillus awarded the title pater patriae.

Punic Wars: 264 -146 BC First Punic War (264 -241 BC): -Initially begun as a proxy war between Rome and Carthage in Sicily -Results in Roman naval superiority and influence over Sicily and Sardinia Second Punic War (218 -202 B. C. ): -Carthaginian aggression against Saguntum in Spain provokes war -Hannibal unable to take Rome and other strategically important cities -War concluded with the Battle of Zama, won by Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus) Third Punic War (149 -146 B. C. ): -Undertaken largely at the urging of Cato Maior (Cato the Elder) -”Carthago delenda est” -Scipio Aemilianus concludes the war by razing the city to the ground

Perseus, king of Macedonia, defeated in 168 BC at Battle of Pydna. The Achaian League (Greek city-states) defeated in 146 B. C. ; Corinth destroyed. Third Punic War finished in 146 B. C. ; Carthage destroyed.

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus – Land Reform Social/Economic Problems: -Following wars on conquest, most land wealth was concentrated in the hands of the aristocratic elite. -Rome’s conquests had flooded the slave market, displacing paid labor -Legionary veterans were unable to find work, and became part of the urban poor. Tiberius Gracchus is elected as Tribune for 133 B. C. Tiberius Gracchus’ proposal: -According to law, no one was permitted to own more than 500 iugera of ager publicus. -Many aristocrats owned well in excess of the legal limit. -All of the “excess” was to be confiscated from the wealthy and put back into government hands. -Each of the urban homeless/poor would then be allotted 30 iugera. -The poor did not previously meet the property qualification for military service; this would improve recruitment.

The senate would not approve the land bill. Tiberius presented the bill to the concilium plebis (Popular Assembly) His fellow Tribune, Marcus Octavius, exercises his veto and prevents the bill’s passage.

Tiberius Gracchus is murdered by a mob of senators and aristocrats in 133 B. C. Gaius Sempronius Gracchus: -Elected as Tribune for 123 and 122 B. C -Attempts to pass land reform similar to that of his brother -Attempts to strengthen power of Tribunate

Gaius Gracchus is murdered in 121 B. C.

War with Jugurtha (112 – 106 B. C. ): Micipsa, the king of Numidia, dies in 118 B. C. Micipsa divided his kingdom equally among his two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and his nephew Jugurtha has Hiempsal assassinated. Adherbal was banished from Numida, and fled to Rome.

Sallust on Jugurtha: Sed postquam Roma egressus est, fertur saepe eo tacitus respiciens postremo dixisse: "Urbem venalem et mature perituram, si emptorem invenerit. "

Rome divides Numidia’s power in half. War with Jugurtha (112 -106 B. C. ): Adherbal besieged by Jugurtha in Cirta; Adherbal defeated, Roman merchants killed. Rome declares war against Jugurtha in 111 B. C.

War with Jugurtha (106 – 102 B. C. ): Jugurthine War is conducted by the consul Quintus Metellus drives Jugurtha away from open combat into guerilla warfare. Metellus’ commission was to defeat and kill Jugurtha. Metellus was assisted by the novus homo from Arpinum, Gaius Marius. -novus homo = A man with no consular/senatorial ancestors. ---In 108 B. C. , Marius returns to Rome to stand for the consulship. -In Rome, Marius misrepresents Metellus’ conduct -Marius made consul for 107 B. C. and given command in Numidia. Marius undertakes a reform of the Roman army – “Marius’ mules. ”

War with Jugurtha (112 – 106 B. C. ) Marius conducts war with the aid of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In 105 B. C. , Sulla conducts a meeting with Bocchus, the King of Mauretania. Bocchus betrays Jugurtha.

Cimbrian War (113 – 101 B. C. ): Beginning in 113 B. C. , the Celtic and Germanic peoples known as the Cimbri and Teutones made incursions on Roman territory. In 105 B. C. , two Roman armies were destroyed in a battle at Arausio. Contrary to precedent, Marius is elected consul in absentia to battle against the Cimbri and Teutones in 104 B. C. -Marius is subsequently elected consul for 103, 102, and 101 B. C. -Cimbri and Teutones are defeated in 101 B. C. -Marius awarded a 6 th consulship in 100 B. C. despite lack of foreign danger.

The Social War (90 -88 B. C. ) Italian towns contributed most of Rome’s military force. Yet, Italian towns had none of the civic rights of Romans. The war was brought to a conclusion by the Lex Iulia. Those who had remained loyal were granted Latin Rights.

War with Mithradates VI (Begins 89 B. C. ):

War with Mithradates: Between 112 and 92 B. C. , Mithradates made several attempts to capture Cappadocia. In 91 B. C. , he invaded Bithynia, but obeyed the Romans’ command to depart. Rome then ordered the king of Bithynia to make raids on Pontus. In 88 B. C. , Mithradates contrived the massacre of 80, 000 Roman settlers living throughout Asia Minor.

War with Mithradates Manius Aquilius - Sent as proconsular legate to conduct war against Mithradates

Sulla’s Reign of Terror: The Beginning (War with Mithradates) Lucius Cornelius Sulla elected consul in 88 B. C. Sulla assigned to conduct war against Mithradates in the east. At the beginning of 88 B. C. , he was still busy besieging the town of Nola (a holdout from the Social War). In Rome, Marius contrives to have the command awarded to himself.

War with Mithradates: Sulla marches on Rome in 88 B. C. and re-orders the state: -Marius and prominent supporters are outlawed. -Sulla strengthens the power of the senate -In 88, Lucius Cornelius Cinna is elected to the consulship for 87 B. C. Sulla leaves Rome to conduct the war. (88 – 85 B. C. ) During the absence of Sulla, the Marian faction regains power in Rome: -The consul Cinna attempts to weaken the authority of the senate. -Marius is recalled from exile. -Sulla’s laws are repealed and his property is confiscated. -The Marian faction receives support from the towns of Italy. -Marius is elected to an unprecedented 7 th consuship for 86 B. C. (but dies early in the year). Sulla returns to Italy in 83 B. C. with 40, 000 battle-hardened veterans and marches on Rome a second time.

Sulla’s Reign of Terror: The Proscriptions 82 B. C. – Sulla declared dictator reipublicae restituendae for 10 years. Beginning of The Proscriptions

Sulla’s Reign of Terror: The Rise of Pompeius In 82 B. C. , Sulla grants propraetorian imperium to Gnaeus Pompeius. Pompey is tasked with eliminating Marian rebellion in Italy and Africa. Pompey celebrates a triumph in 79 B. C. Sulla bestows upon Pompey the cognomen Magnus. More informally, his opponents called him adulescens carnifex.

Sulla’s Death; Rebellion: Sulla resigns dictatorship in 79 B. C. Sulla dies in 78 B. C. Quintus Sertorius, the governor of Spain, initiates a revolt in 80 B. C. Pompey is sent to Spain in 78 B. C. Pompey’s campaign lasts through 72 B. C. ----

War with Spartacus: In 73 B. C. , a slave revolt led by the Thracian gladiator Spartacus breaks out. War against Spartacus waged ineffectively. Marcus Licinius Crassus is put in command of the war against Spartacus.

The Conflict Between Pompey and Crassus; Pompey’s Command Crassus defeats Spartacus in 71 B. C. , and has 6, 000 captured slaves crucified. On his return from Spain, Pompey encounters a small remnant of the slave army (5, 000 men) and eliminates them. Pompey and Crassus become consuls in 70 B. C. ---From 74 – 67 B. C. , Rome had been waging war ineffectively against Cilician Pirates. In 67 B. C. , Pompey was given an unprecedented command to put down the pirates. Within 40 days, Pompey cleared the seas; he totally defeated them on land within another 49. Pompey then campaigned in the east to defeat Mithradates and settle Roman provincial interests.

Conspiracy of Catiline:

Pompey’s Return, Triumph, and Disappointment In 62 B. C. , Pompey returns to Italy and disbands his army. In 61 B. C. , he celebrates a Triumph. He proposes a land settlement for his veterans, but the senate obstructs this.

Formation of the First Triumvirate: In 61 B. C. , Marcus Licinius Crassus attempted to secure contracts for tax-farming in Asia. Crassus was obstructed in his aims by the senate. -In 60 B. C. , Gaius Julius Caesar returned to Rome from Spain, where he had served as praetor and governor. Caesar is granted a triumph, but cannot legally enter the city under arms. He attempts to stand for the consulship in absentia, but is blocked by the senate under the leadership of Marcus Porcius Cato. Caesar gives up his triumph to stand for election; he is elected as consul for 59 B. C. along with Marcus Bibulus.

Unus ex eo tempore omnia in re publica et ad arbitrium administravit, ut nonnulli urbanorum, cum quid per iocum testandi gratia signarent, non Caesare et Bibulo, sed Iulio et Caesare consulibus actum scriberent bis eundem praeponentes nomine atque cognomine, utque vulgo mox ferrentur hi versus: non Bibulo quiddam nuper sed Caesare factum est: nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini.

The First Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus make an informal agreement designed to last for five years. Caesar pushes through Pompey’s land bill. Crassus’ tax-farming contracts are ratified. Caesar is awared a five-year proconsular governorship in Cisalpine Gaul. Pompey later adds Transalpine Gaul. -This initially puts Caesar in charge of three legions.

Gaul in 58 BC