Practical Hematology Lab Blood Smear I Preparation Of

Practical Hematology Lab Blood Smear

I- Preparation Of Blood Smear There are three types of blood smears: 1. The cover glass smear. 2. The wedge smear. 3. The spun smear. The are two additional types of blood smear used for specific purposes 1. Buffy coat smear for WBCs < 1. 0× 109/L 2. Thick blood smears for blood parasites.

Wedge Blood Smear Specimen : EDTA blood within 2 to 3 hours & collected to the mark on tube. Note : May change RBCs morphology such as Spiculated (crenated) cells if : 1. Excessive amount of anticoagulant to specimen 2. Old blood - long standing. 3. Warm environment (room temperature) may hasten changes.

Procedure placing a drop of blood from mixed sample on a clean glass slide. Spreader slide using another clean glass slide at 30 -40 degree angle. Control thickness of the smear by changing the angle of spreader slide Allow the blood film to air-dry completely before staining. (Do not blow to dry. The moisture from your breath will cause RBC artifact. )

Steps For Blood Film

Procedural Notes 1. Characteristics of a good smear 1. Thick at one end, thinning out to a smooth rounded feather edge. 2. Should occupy 2/3 of the total slide area. 3. Should not touch any edge of the slide. 4. Should be margin free, except for point of application. 2. As soon as the drop of blood is placed on the glass slide, the smear should be made without delay. Any delay results in an abnormal distribution of the white blood cells, with many of the large white cells accumulating at the thin edge of the smear.

3. The thickness of the spread 1. If the hematocrit is increased, the angle of the spreader slide should be decreased. 2. If the hematocrit is decreased, the angle of the spreader slide should be increased

4. common causes of a poor blood smear 1. Drop of blood too large or too small. 2. Spreader slide pushed across the slide in a jerky manner. 3. Failure to keep the entire edge of the spreader slide against the slide while making the smear. 4. Failure to keep the spreader slide at a 30° angle with the slide. 5. Failure to push the spreader slide completely across the slide. 6. Irregular spread with ridges and long tail: Edge of spreader dirty or chipped; dusty slide 7. Holes in film: Slide contaminated with fat or grease 8. Cellular degenerative changes: delay in fixing, inadequate fixing time or methanol contaminated with water.

Examples Of Unacceptable Smears A: Blood film with jagged tail made from a spreader with a chipped end. B: Film which is too thick C: Film which is too long, too wide, uneven thickness and made on a greasy slide. D: A well-made blood film

Examples Of Unacceptable Smears

5. Biologic Causes Of A Poor Smear 1. Cold agglutinin - RBCs will clump together. Warm the blood at 37° C for 5 minutes, and then remake the smear. 2. Lipemia - holes will appear in the smear. There is nothing you can do to correct this. 3. Rouleaux - RBC’s will form into stacks resembling coins. There is nothing you can do to correct this

6. Although this is the easiest and most popular methods for producing a blood smear, it does not produce a quality smear. The WBCs are unevenly distributed and RBC distortion is seen at the edges Smaller WBCs such as lymphocytes tend to reside in the middle of the feathered edge. Large cells such as monocytes, immature cells and abnormal cells can be found in the outer limits of this area. Spun smears produce the most uniform distribution of blood cells.

Slide Fixation And Staining Leishman's Stain

II- Fixing the films To preserve the morphology of the cells, films must be fixed as soon as possible after they have dried. Methyl alcohol (methanol) is the choice, although ethyl alcohol ("absolute alcohol") can be used. To fix the films, place them in a covered staining jar or tray containing the alcohol for 23 minutes. In humid climates it might be necessary to replace the methanol 2 -3 times per day; the old portions can be used for storing clean slides.

Notes • It is important to prevent contact with water before fixation is complete. The presence of water during methanol fixation produces refractile body artifacts (water spots) in the erythrocytes. • These water spots persist through staining of the smear and cover items of interest in the smear. Further, they are distracting to the person evaluating the smear. In some cases, the water spots may interfere with diagnosis. • To prevent the alcohol from becoming contaminated by absorbed water, it must be stored in a bottle with a tightly fitting stopper and not left exposed to the atmosphere, especially in humid climates.

III. Staining the film Romanowsky staining: Romanowsky stains are universally employed for staining blood films and are generally very satisfactory. There a number of different combinations of these dyes, which vary, in their staining characteristics. 1. May-Grunwald-Giemsa is a good method for routine work. 2. Giemsa stain is thought to produce more delicate staining characteristics. «Wright's stain is a simpler method «. 4. Leishman's is also a simple method, which is especially suitable when a stained blood film is required urgently or the routine stain is not available (e. g. at night). 5. Field's stain is a rapid stain used primarily on thin films for malarial parasites.

Principle The main components of a Romanowsky stain are: v. A cationic or basic dye (methylene blue or its oxidation products such as azure B), which binds to anionic sites and gives a blue-grey color to nucleic acids (DNA or RNA), nucleoproteins, granules of basophils and weakly to granules of neutrophils v. An anionic or acidic dye such as eosin Y or eosin B, which binds to cationic sites on proteins and gives an orange-red color to hemoglobin and eosinophil granules. vp. H value of phosphate buffer is very important.

Staining Procedure (Leishman’s Stain) Thin smear are air dried. Flood the smear with stain. Stain for 1 -5 min. Experience will indicate the optimum time. Add an equal amount of buffer solution and mix the stain by blowing an eddy in the fluid. Leave the mixture on the slide for 10 -15 min. Wash off by running water directly to the center of the slide to prevent a residue of precipitated stain. Stand slide on end, and let dry in air.

Staining Characteristics Of A Correctly Stained Normal Film • Nuclei • Cytoplasm • Erythrocytes • Neutrophils • Lymphocytes Purple • Monocytes • Basophils Deep pink Orange-pink Blue; some small lymphocytes deep blue Grey-blue Blue • Granules • • Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes • Platelets Fine purple Red-orange Purple-black Fine reddish (azurophil) Purple

Eosinophilic granules Blue nucleus Basophilic granules

Discussion Ø The phosphate buffer controls the p. H of the stain. Ø If the p. H is too acid, those cells or cell parts taking up an acid dye stain will stain pinker and the acid components that stain with the basic dye show very pale staining. Ø If the stain-buffer mixture is too alkaline, the red blood cells will appear grayish-blue and the white cell nuclei will stain very deeply purple. Ø Therefore, to stain all cells and cell parts well, the p. H of the phosphate buffer is critical.

CAUSES & CORRECTION Too Acid Stain: 1. insufficient staining time 2. prolonged buffering or washing 3. old stain Correction: 1) lengthen staining time 2) check stain and buffer p. H 3) shorten buffering or wash time

Too Alkaline Stain: 1. thick blood smear 2. prolonged staining 3. insufficient washing 4. alkaline p. H of stain components Correction : 1) check p. H 2) shorten stain time 3) prolong buffering time

TOO ACIDIC SUITABLE TOO BASIC

Performing A Manual Differential And Assessing RBC Morphology

Introduction Ø When blood samples are evaluated by the use of automated hematology analyzers, this analysis includes automated differentials. Ø Specific criteria pertaining to normal, abnormal, and critical values have been programmed into the analyzers by the institution, and if the differentials do not meet these criteria, verification is necessary. Ø This is done by performing manual differentials and further evaluating the peripheral smear.

Objective Ø To determine the relative number of each type of white cell present in the blood by performing differential cell counts on five relatively normal blood smears and five sets of abnormal blood smears within a ± 15% accuracy of the instructor's values. Ø To determine within one qualitative unit the red cell, white cell, and platelet morphology of each of the above blood smears. Ø To determine within ± 20% accuracy an estimate of the white cell counts and the platelet counts of each of the above blood smears.

Principle Ø First, a differential white blood cell (WBC) count is performed to determine the relative number of each type of white cell present. Ø Technologists/technicians must recognize and properly record the type(s) of white cell observed. Simultaneously, red cell, white cell, and platelet morphology is noted and recorded. Ø Also, a rough estimate of platelets and WBC counts is made to determine if these numbers generally correlate with the automated hematology analyzer. Ø Technologists/technicians must be proficient at recognizing red and white cell abnormalities, identifying them correctly, and quantifying them.

Principle White Blood Cells 1. Check for even distribution and estimate the number present (also, look for any gross abnormalities present on the smear). 2. Perform the differential count. Red Blood Cells, Examine for : 1. Size and shape. 2. Relative hemoglobin content. 3. Polychromatophilia. 4. Inclusions. 5. Rouleaux formation or agglutination

Principle Platelets 1. Estimate number present. 2. Examine for morphologic abnormalities.

Procedures Observations Under × 10 1. Check to see if there are good counting areas available free of ragged edges and cell clumps. 2. Check the WBC distribution over the smear. 3. Check that the slide is properly stained. 4. Check for the presence of large platelets, platelet clumps, and fibrin strands.

Observations Under× 40 x : WBC Estimates Using the × 40 high dry with no oil. Choose a portion of the peripheral smear where there is only slight overlapping of the RBCs. Count 10 fields, take the total number of white cells and divide by 10. To do a WBC estimate by taking the average number of white cells and multiplying by 2000.

Observations Under × 100: Platelet Estimates Ø Platelet estimates are done under × 100 with the RBCs barely touching, approximately 200 RBCs. This takes place under the × 100 objective (oil). On average there are 8 to 20 platelets per field. Ø Ten fields are counted using the zigzag method. This method of counting is done by going back and forth lengthwise or sidewise.

Platelet Estimation Platelets per oil immersion field (OIF) • <8 platelets/OIF = decreased • 8 to 20 platelets/OIF = adequate • >20 platelets/OIF = increased • After the 10 fields are counted, the number of platelets is divided by 10 to get the average. The average number is now multiplied by a factor of 20, 000 for wedge preparations. For monolayer preparations, use a factor of 15, 000.

PLATELETS

Manual Differential Counts These counts are done in the same area as WBC and platelet estimates with the red cells barely touching. This takes place under × 100 (oil) using the zigzag method. Count 100 WBCs including all cell lines from immature to mature. Reporting results Results are expressed as a percentage of the total leukocytes counted. It is also helpful to know the actual number of each white cell type per µL of blood. This is referred to as the absolute count and is calculated as follows: Absolute number of cells/µl = % of cell type in differential x white cell count

Observing And Recording Nucleated Red Blood Cells (NRBCS) If 10 or more nucleated RBC's (NRBC) are seen, correct the White Count using this formula: Corrected WBC Count = WBC x 100/( NRBC + 100) Example : If WBC = 5000 and 10 NRBCs have been counted Then 5, 000× 100/110 = 4545. 50 The corrected white count is 4545. 50.

Observing Direction: Observe one field and record the number of WBC according to the different type then turn to another field in the snake-liked direction *avoid repeat or miss some cells

1 - Normal Peripheral Blood Smear

Characteristics Of Blood Cells Erythrocyte: • Shape & size: Biconcave disc , size like lymphocyte nucleus. • Nucleus : lost. • Cytoplasm: pinkish hue, small area of central pallor. • Number in man varies between 5 and 5. 5 million per cubic mm of blood. Platelet ( Thrompocytes) • Nucleus: No nucleus. • Cytoplasm: small amount bluish cytoplasm & contains reddish – purple granules

White Blood Cells Ø White blood cells, or leukocytes, are classified into two main groups; granulocytes and non granulocytes (also known as agranulocytes). Ø The granulocytes, which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, have granules in their cell cytoplasm. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils also have a multilobed nucleus. As a result they are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes or "polys. " The nuclei of neutrophils also appear to be segmented, so they may also be called segmented neutrophils or "segs. " Ø The nongranulocytes white blood cells, lymphocytes and monocytes, do not have granules and have nonlobular nuclei. They are sometimes referred to as mononuclear leukocytes.

Leukocytosis Leukocytosis, a WBC above 10, 000 is usually due to an increase in one of the five types of white blood cells and is given the name of the cell that shows the primary increase. 1. Neutrophilic leukocytosis 2. Lymphocytic leukocytosis 3. Eosinophilic leukocytosis = neutrophilia = lymphocytosis = eosinophilia 4. Monocytic leukocytosis =monocytosis 5. Basophilic leukocytosis = basophilia

Stab Neutrophil (Band) § Diameter: 12 -16 § Cytoplasm : pink § Granules: primary, secondary § Nucleus: dark purple blue § dense chromatin

Segmented Neutrophil § Diameter: 12 -16 § Cytoplasm : pink § Granules: primary, secondary § Nucleus: dark purple blue, dense chromatin, 25 lobes.

1. Neutrophils are so named because they are not well stained by either eosin, a red acidic stain, or by methylene blue, a basic or alkaline stain. Neutrophils are also known as "segs", "PMNs" or "polys" (polymorphonuclear). They are the body's primary defense against bacterial infection.

Increased neutrophils count (neutrophilia) 1. Acute bacterial infection. 2. Granulocytic leukemia. Decreased neutrophil count (neutropenia) 1. Typhoid fever 2. Brucellosis 3. Viral diseases, including hepatitis, influenza, rubella, and mumps.

Left-shift And Right-shift Of Neutrophil Normally, most of the neutrophils circulating in the bloodstream are in a mature form, with the nucleus of the cell being divided or segmented. Because of the segmented appearance of the nucleus, neutrophils are sometimes referred to as "segs. ” The nucleus of less mature neutrophils is not segmented, but has a band or rod-like shape. Less mature neutrophils - those that have recently been released from the bone marrow into the bloodstream - are known as "bands" or "stabs". Left-shift: non-segmented neutrophil > 5% Right-shift: hypersegmented neutrophil >3%

Band Neutrophil Segmented Neutrophile Shift to left Increased bands mean acute infection, usually bacterial. Shift to right Increased hypersegmented neutrophile.

2. Eosinophil § Diameter: 14 -16 § Cytoplasm : full of granules § Granules: large refractile orange-red. § Nucleus: blue, dense chromatin, 2 lobes like a pair of glass.

Ø The most common reasons for an increase in the eosinophil count are : 1. Allergic reactions such as hay fever, asthma, or drug hypersensitivity. 2. Parasitic infection 3. Eosinophilic leukemia

3. Basophil § § Diameter: 14 -16 Cytoplasm : pink § Granules: dark blue –black obscure nucleus § Nucleus: blue v The purpose of basophils is not completely understood. v Basophile counts are used to analyze allergic reactions. v An alteration in bone marrow function such as leukemia may cause an increase in basophils.

4. Lymphocyte § Diameter: small 7 -9, large 12 -16 § Cytoplasm: medium blue § Granules: small agranular, large a few, primary granules § Nucleus: dark blue, round dense chromatin

Lymphocytes are the primary components of the body's immune system. They are the source of serum immunoglobulin's and of cellular immune response. Two types of lymphocytes: 1. B lymphocyte : Humeral immunity. 2. T lymphocyte : Cellular immunity.

Lymphocytes increase (lymphocytosis) in: 1. 2. 3. 4. Many viral infections Tuberculosis. Typhoid fever Lymphocytic leukemia. A decreased lymphocyte (lymphopenia) count of less than 500 places a patient at very high risk of infection, particularly viral infections.

5. Monocyte § Diameter: 14 -20 § Cytoplasm : grey blue § Granules: dust-like lilac color granules § Nucleus: blue, large irregularly shaped and folded Ø Diseases that cause a monocytosis include: • Tuberculosis • Brucellosis • Malaria • Monocytic leukemia

Band Neutrophil basophil Segmented Neutrophil lymphocyte Eosinophil Monocyte

Discussion 1. Do not count cells that are disintegrating • eosinophil with no cytoplasmic membrane and with scattered granules • smudge cells • Pyknotic cell (nucleus extremely condensed and degenerated, lobes condensed into small, round clumps with no filaments interconnecting). • smudge cells • Basket cells

2 - Abnormal Differentials 1. 200 Cell diff: a. WBC > 15. 0 (>20. 0 for babies under 1 month and labor unit) b. Three or more basophils seen. 2. If more than five immature WBC's are seen (or any blasts) let someone else diff slide and average results. 3. Correct WBC for NRBC's if you seen ten or more NRBCs/100 WBC. 4. Always indicate number of cells counted on diff. 5. If any cell type is extremely elevated (such as bands, monos, or eos > 20) indicate that you are aware of the abnormality by circling or checking on the card next to the results.

3 -Morphologic Changes Due To Area Of Smear Thin area- Spherocytes which are really "spheroidocytes" or flattened red cells. True spherocytes will be found in other (Good) areas of smear. Thick area - Rouleaux, which is normal in such areas. Confirm by examining thin areas. If true rouleaux, two-three RBC's will stick together in a "stack of coins" fashion. .

Tail Body Head

4. A well-made and well-stained smear is essential to the accuracy of the differential count. The knowledge and ability of the cell morphologist is critical to high-quality results. 5. Before reporting significant abnormalities such as blasts, malaria or other significant finding on a patient’s differential, ask a more experienced tech to review the smear for confirmation. In clinical settings where a pathologist or hematologist is present, the smear is set aside for Pathologist Review. 6. Never hesitate to ask questions concerning morphology or the identification of cells. The differential is one of the most difficult laboratory tests to learn. In fact, learning about cells and their morphology is a process that continues for as long as you perform differentials.