Population Ecology Descriptions and Characterizations of Populations How

Population Ecology

Descriptions and Characterizations of Populations How can we describe populations? 1. Occupying niche 2. Distribution pattern 3. Survivorship pattern 4. Life Tables/Life History 5. Pattern of growth (models) 6. Genetic traits/alleles

Niche • More than just the habitat • An organisms place or role in the environment • The conditions, resources and interactions necessary for survival and reproduction • Everything needed for an organism’s existence: ____________________

Define population: ________________ Individuals in a population a. b. c.

Population ecology is the study of how and why populations change • Population ecology _________________________________ • Populations – increase through ________________________ - decrease through ________ and ___________out of an area. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables • Dispersion patterns can be ______, _______, or ________. – In a _______ pattern • resources are often unequally distributed • individuals are grouped in patches. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables • In a ______ pattern, individuals are – most likely interacting and – equally spaced in the environment. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables • In a _______ pattern of dispersion, the individuals in a population are spaced in an unpredictable way. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Life tables track survivorship -the chance of an individual surviving to various ages.

Survivorship curves plot survivorship as the proportion of individuals from an initial population that are alive at each age. Percentage of survivors (log scale) 100 I 10 II 1 III 0. 1 0 50 Percentage of maximum life span 100

Idealized models predict patterns of population growth 2 models: 1. _____________ 2. ______________

The rate of population increase under ideal conditions is called exponential growth. It can be calculated using the exponential growth model equation, G = r N, in which • G is the growth rate of the population, • N is the population size, and • r is the per capita rate of increase (the average contribution of each individual to population growth). © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Population size (N) Exponential growth of rabbits 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Time (months)

Eventually, one or more limiting factors will restrict population growth:

• The logistic growth model is a description of idealized population growth that is slowed by limiting factors as the populatio nsize increases. • To model logistic growth, the formula for exponential growth, r N, is multiplied by an expression that describes the effect of limiting factors on an increasing population size. • K stands for carrying capacity, the maximum population size a particular environment can sustain.

Breeding male fur seals (thousands) 10 Growth of a population of fur seals 8 6 4 2 0 1915 1925 1935 Year 1945

Number of individuals (N) G r. N K 0 G Time (K N) r. N K

Multiple factors may limit population growth • The logistic growth model predicts that population growth will slow and eventually stop as population density increases. • At increasing population densities, densitydependent rates result in – declining births and – increases in deaths.

Average clutch size 12 11 10 9 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Number of breeding pairs 90

100 Survivors (%) 80 60 40 20 40 60 80 100 120 Density (beetles/0. 5 g flour)

• In many natural populations, abiotic factors (examples) may affect population size well before densitydependent factors become important. • These are called Density-independent factors are unrelated to population density. These may include: • ______________ • _______

Number of aphids Exponential growth Apr May Jun Sudden decline Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month

Some populations have “boom-and-bust” cycles • Some populations fluctuate in density with regularity. • Boom-and-bust cycles may be due to – food shortages or – predator-prey interactions.

160 Snowshoe hare 120 9 Lynx 80 6 40 3 0 0 1850 1875 Year 1900 1925 Lynx population size (thousands) Hare population size (thousands) Predator-Prey Relationship

Evolution shapes life histories • The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and death make up its life history. • Key life history traits include – – age of first reproduction, frequency of reproduction, number of offspring, and amount of parental care.

Evolution shapes life histories • Populations with so-called r-selected life history traits – _______________________________________ • Populations with K-selected traits – _______________________________________ • Most species fall between these two extremes.

Evolution shapes life histories • A long-term project in Trinidad – studied guppy populations, – provided direct evidence that life history traits can be shaped by natural selection, and – demonstrated that questions about evolution can be tested by field experiments.

Pool 1 Predator: Killifish; preys on small guppies Guppies: Larger at sexual maturity Experiment: Transplant guppies Pool 3 Pools with killifish but no guppies prior to transplant Pool 2 Predator: Pikecichlid; preys on large guppies Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity Hypothesis: Predator feeding preferences caused difference in life history traits of guppy populations.

185. 6 161. 5 67. 5 76. 1 Males Females Control: Guppies from pools with pike-cichlids as predators Age of guppies at maturity (days) Mass of guppies at maturity (mg) 200 160 120 80 40 100 80 60 40 20 85. 7 92. 3 48. 5 58. 2 Males Females Experimental: Guppies transplanted to pools with killifish as predators

Principles of population ecology have practical applications • Sustainable resource management involves: _______________________ • Example: The cod fishery off Newfoundland – was overfished, – collapsed in 1992, and – still has not recovered. • Resource managers use population ecology to determine sustainable yields.

Yield (thousands of metric tons) Resource managers use population ecology to determine sustainable yields 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Random mutations may result in new phenotypes within a population

Founder Effect

Natural selection is simply the logical result of four features of living systems: variation - individuals in a population vary from one another inheritance - parents pass on their traits to their offspring genetically selection - some variants reproduce more than others time - successful variations accumulate over many generations

THE HUMAN POPULATION

The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing • The human population – grew rapidly during the 20 th century and – currently stands at about 7 billion. • The demographic transition – is the shift from high birth and death rates – to low birth and death rates, and – has lowered the rate of growth in developed countries.

80 10 Population increase 8 60 6 40 4 Total population size 20 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 Year 2 0 Total population (in billions) Annual increase (in millions) 100

Demographic transition in Mexico Birth or death rate per 1, 000 population 50 40 30 Rate of increase 20 10 Birth rate Death rate 0 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 Year

The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing • In the developing nations – death rates have dropped, – birth rates are still high, and – these populations are growing rapidly.

36. 9 The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing • The age structure of a population – is the proportion of individuals in different age groups – affects the future growth of the population. • Population momentum is the continued growth that occurs – despite reduced fertility and – as a result of girls in the 0– 14 age group of a previously expanding population reaching their childbearing years. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Age structures reveal social and economic trends • Age-structure diagrams reveal – a population’s growth trends and – social conditions. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Age structures for the United States in 1985, 2010 (estimated), and 2035 (projected) Age Birth years 85 80– 84 75– 79 70– 74 65– 69 60– 64 55– 59 50– 54 45– 49 40– 44 35– 39 30– 34 25– 29 20– 24 15– 19 10– 14 5– 9 0– 4 1985 Male Female before 1901– 1905 1906– 10 1911– 15 1916– 20 1921– 25 1926– 30 1931– 35 1936– 40 1941– 45 1946– 50 1951– 55 1956– 60 1961– 65 1966– 70 1971– 75 1976– 80 1981– 85 Birth years 2010 Male Female before 1926– 30 1931– 35 1936– 40 1941– 45 1946– 50 1951– 55 1956– 60 1961– 65 1966– 70 1971– 75 1976– 80 1981– 85 1986– 90 1991– 95 1996– 2000 2001– 2005 2006– 2010 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Population in millions Total population size 238, 466, 283 Birth years 2035 Male Female before 1951– 55 1956– 60 1961– 65 1966– 70 1971– 75 1976– 80 1981– 85 1986– 90 1991– 95 1996– 2000 2001– 05 2006– 10 2011– 15 2016– 20 2021– 25 2026– 30 2031– 35 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Estimated population in millions Total population size 310, 232, 863 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Projected population in millions Total population size 389, 531, 156

An ecological footprint is a measure of resource consumption • The U. S. Census Bureau projects a global population of – 8 billion people within the next 20 years and – 9. 5 billion by mid-21 st century. • Do we have sufficient resources to sustain 8 or 9 billion people? • To accommodate all the people expected to live on our planet by 2025, the world will have to double food production.

36. 11 CONNECTION: An ecological footprint is a measure of resource consumption • An ecological footprint is an estimate of the amount of land required to provide the raw materials an individual or a nation consumes, including – – – food, fuel, water, housing, and waste disposal. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The United States – has a very large ecological footprint, much greater than its own land, and – is running on a large ecological deficit. • Some researchers estimate that – if everyone on Earth had the same standard of living as people living in the United States, – we would need the resources of 4. 5 planet Earths.

Families in India (left) and the United States (right) display their possessions

Ecology Unit Objectives 1. Define a population and population ecology. 2. Define population density and describe different types of dispersion patterns. 3. Explain how life tables are used to track mortality and survivorship in populations. 4. Compare Type I, Type II, and Type III survivorship curves. 5. Describe and compare the exponential and logistic population growth models, illustrating both with examples. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to 6. 7. Explain the concept of carrying capacity. Describe the factors that regulate growth in natural populations. 8. Define boom-and-bust cycles, explain why they occur, and provide examples. 9. Explain how life history traits vary with environmental conditions and with population density. 10. Compare r-selection and K-selection and indicate examples of each. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to 11. Describe the major challenges inherent in managing populations. 12. Explain how the structure of the world’s human population has changed and continues to change. 13. Explain how the age structure of a population can be used to predict changes in population size and social conditions. 14. Explain the concept of an ecological footprint. Describe the uneven use of natural resources in the world. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.