Political Transformations Empires Encounters 1450 1750 Objective Analyze

Political Transformations Empires & Encounters 1450 -1750 Objective: Analyze the range of colonial societies that evolved & the reasons for differences between them between 1450 & 1750

European Empires in the Americas • Western Europe began to build empires that were an ocean away from the imperial heartland • The Spanish forces began building their empire after defeating the Aztecs & Incas • The Portuguese established themselves in modern day Brazil • The British, French, & Dutch launched colonial settlements along the eastern coast of North America

The European Advantage • Europeans had create ships there were the most maneuverable in the world due to the difficult maritime environmental winds • China, India, & Muslims found there to be no incentive to venture beyond their own waters • After 1200, European realized their marginal position in the rice world of Eurasian commerce • Once they conquer the Americas, the Europeans are able to profit from the natural resources • Merchants wanted a new route to Asian spices, the impoverished wanted a new life, & missionaries wanted more people to convert

The European Advantage • Although they were far from home, the Europeans were effective in mobilizing both human & material resources • European innovations in mapmaking, navigation, sailing technologies, & ship design allowed them to penetrate the Atlantic Ocean • Divisions within & between local societies provided allies for the determined European invaders • People joined Hernan Cortez against the Aztecs • They did the same against the Incas, viewing the Europeans as liberators • The spread of disease also decimated societies in the Americas

The Great Dying & the Little Ice Age • Scholars generally agree that pre. Columbian population of the Western Hemisphere was perhaps 60 -80 million • Long isolation, & lack of domesticated animals meant the absence of immunities to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, malaria, & yellow fever • When the Native American peoples came into contact with the European/African diseases they died in appalling numbers up to 90% of the population – Great Dying

The Great Dying & the Little Ice Age • Little Ice Age – period of unusual cool temperatures around the world • General Crisis – extreme weather conditions that led to famines, uprisings, & wars • Climate plays an important role in shaping human history

The Columbian Exchange • Over the several centuries of the colonial era, various combinations of indigenous, European, & African people created new societies in the Americas • Europeans & Africans brought plants & animals with them to the Americas as well including new animals like horses, pigs, cattle, goats, & sheep • Women lost much of their earlier role as food producers • American food crops also spread quickly in the Eastern Hemisphere • Populations skyrocketed with the introduction nutritious foods such as potatoes

The Columbian Exchange • Never before was there a large scale diffusion of plants & animals operated to remake the biological environment of the planet • Columbian Exchange – enormous network of transatlantic communication, migration, trade, & the transfer of disease, plants, & animals began in the period of European exploration & colonization of the Americas • Europeans reaped the greatest reward at the cost of other cultures

Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas • European colonial empires did not simply conquer & govern established societies but rather generated new societies • Mercantilism – economic theory that governments served their countries’ economic interests best by encouraging exports & accumulating wealth • Colonies provided closed markets for the manufactured goods of the “mother country” • In the colonies themselves, empire took shape in various ways; This could be with religion, development of agriculture, etc.

Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas • Beyond the burdens of violent conquest, epidemic disease, & coerced labor women had to cope with additional demands • Conquest was also followed with the transfer of women to the new colonial rulers • Cortes marked his alliance with the city of Tlaxcala against the Aztecs by receiving hundreds of female slaves whom he distributed to his soldiers • Many Spanish men married elite native women • Moctezum’s daughter was a mistress to Cortes • Women experienced sexual violence & abuse; this was a humiliation to them but the native men as well who couldn’t defend the women

In the Lands of the Aztecs & the Incas • The Spanish conquest of the Aztec & Incas gave them access to the most wealthy, urbanized, & densely populated regions • The Spanish in Mexico & Peru had established a dozen major cities in a century which included universities, churches, & missions • The economic foundation for the colony lay in commercial agriculture that was done by native people who were often treated like slaves

In the Lands of the Aztecs & the Incas • There was a strict social order with the integration of races • At the top were the male Spanish settlers because they were politically & economically dominate; they never made up more than 20% of the population • Eventually tension rose between the Creoles (Spanish born in the Americas) vs. the Peninsulares (born in Spain) • Mestizo – mixed race citizens, mostly Spanish men with Indian women • They became the mostly populated race in Mexico during the 19 th century

In the Lands of the Aztecs & the Incas • The Mestizo were divided into their own racial groups based on racial heritage & skin color • At the bottom of the pyramid were the indigenous people known as “Indians” • Indians were subject to abuse, forced labor, their empires were torn apart, & their religion was questioned • Gender equality disappeared all together • However, indigenous people were able to keep some of their old traditions • It was more fluid & culturally blended in Spanish colonies than it was in the British colonies

Colonies of Sugar • Portugal, British, French, & Dutch turned their colonies especially in the Caribbean & Brazil into highly productive sugarproducing colonies • Producing sugar cane & processing it is extremely labor intensive • Europeans turned to Africa, creating the Atlantic Slave Trade to find an alternative workforce • 80% of the slave were transported to these plantations • Due to the dangerous work, the Europeans brought more slaves to the plantations • Since the plantations extensively used slaves, the population of the areas turned to be a major of African decent (Haiti was 93%)

Colonies of Sugar • In North American colonies slaves worked on tobacco & cotton plantations • In Spanish America & Brazil there was a considerable amount of racial mixing while the British had brought over women with them to their colonies so there was less racial mixing • Slavery was hereditary in the North American colonies while in other regions they could buy their freedom or be released from slavery • However, racism still existed in the region often based on skin color

Settler Colonies in North America • The northern British colonies were also distinctive • Although the first settlers brought a lot of their English culture the Puritans & Quakers had left Europe seeking to escape the “Old World” • Settler Colonies – imperial territories in which Europeans settled permanently • The European settler colonies lacked slaves and were mostly small scale & independent • They often developed their own local governments while the king paid little attention to the internal affairs of the colonies • Although South America was more promising to be powerful because of their resources, Northern America will become more wealthy

The Steppes & Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire • By 1480, a small Russian state centered on the city of Moscow was emerging from two centuries of Mongol rule • The Russians will begin to expand into northern Asia all the way to the Pacific Ocean & westward into the Baltics & Eastern Europe • It was located on remote, cold, & heavily forested eastern edge of Christendom

The Steppes & Siberia: The Making of a Russian Empire • Russian motives to move eastward into Siberia was to dominate the “soft gold” trade of fur bearing animals • The enormous Russian Empire took shape between 1500 & 1800 • Russian migrants into these new eastern land found economic & social improvements • Political leaders viewed this empire as a chance to defend Russian frontiers, enhance the power of Russia, & bring Christianity to “savage” people

Experiencing the Russian Empire • Military might with modern weapons brought the steppes & Siberia under Russian control • The Russians demanded people they conquered to swear allegiance to the grand Tsar (Czar) as well as pay yasak (tribute) • Disease epidemics also followed with conquest because of little exposure to smallpox & measles • Russians also pressured people to convert to Christianity; they promised tax breaks & other incentives for conversion • Catherine the Great allowed religious tolerance to Muslims

Experiencing the Russian Empire • The influx of Russian settlers eventually allowed them to outnumber the native population • The loss of hunting grounds to Russian agricultural settlers undermined longstanding economies & made the native people dependent on Russian markets • Pastoralists would have to pay a “passing tax” which encouraged people to settle • Native populations eventually intertwined with the Russians & they were accepted into the Russian society eventually adopting Russian & Christianity

Russians & Empire • Russians diminished as a proportion of the overall population of their empire • The rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, & mineral deposits played a major role in making Russia one of the great powers of Europe • During Russia’s westward expansion they noticed their backwardness to Western Europe • Peter the Great ordered for the “Westernization” of Russia • Westernization included administrative changes, enlargement of the military forces, new educational system, & dozens of manufacturing enterprises • St. Petersburg was developed as a window to the west & Russians became more European like

Russians & Empire • Russia had also become an Asian power • It was the frontlines between Christendom & Islam • The Russians had created an empire similar to those in Western Europe through conquest, settlement, exploitation, religious conversion, & feelings of superiority • However, unlike Western Europe the Russians created an empire by conquering the land next to them • While eventually people gained their independence, the Russian Empire lasted until 1991

Asian Empires • While the Europeans were building empires in the Americas & the Russians were expanding into Siberia, Asian countries were also developing their own empires • None of the Asian empires had the global reach that the Europeans had • They also won’t bring devastating & transforming impact on their conquered people • The expanding Asian empires reflected the energies & vitality of their respective civilizations in the early modern era

Making China an Empire • In the 17 th & 18 th centuries, China began building an empire that enlarged the territorial size of the country while incorporating a large number of non. Chinese peoples • Foreigners from Manchuria (Qing Dynasty) had taken over China after widespread famine & peasant rebellions • They forbid intermarriage, but mastered the Chinese language & Confucian teaching • 1680 -1760: The Qing Dynasty undertook a military effort to bring the regions under its control

Making China an Empire • The Chinese never viewed themselves as an imperial power but spoke of “unification” during the Qing expansion • They ruled the areas they conquered separately from the rest of China using the people there to rule • These officials offer exploited their own people by adding extra taxes • However, the Chinese did not seek to assimilate local people into Chinese culture

Making China an Empire • The borders of contemporary China are essentially those created during the Qing Dynasty • The Qing conquests together with the expansion of the Russian Empire, transformed Central Asia • Due to this fact, the land based travel/trade of the silk road took a backseat to the Indian Ocean Trade • Nomadic pastoralists eventually settled to agricultural society

Muslims & Hindus in the Mughal Empire • India’s Mughal Empire entered a further phase in the long interaction of Islamic & Hindu cultures in South Asia • The ruling dynasty & 20% of the population were Muslim • Akbar: emperor of Mughal Empire that tried to accommodate the Hindu majority • He married several Indian princess & also incorporated several Hindus into the political-military elite of the empire • They also tried to soften Hindu restrictions on women

Muslims & Hindus in the Mughal Empire • Akbar imposed a policy of tolerance on religious matters • They removed the special tax on non. Muslims & created a special House of Worship for all religions • The overall style of the Mughal Empire was that of a blended elite culture • Persian artists & writers were welcomed into the empire • Some Muslims opposed the Mughal’s Empire policies • They viewed the Hindu festivals as impure intrusions

Muslims & Hindus in the Mughal Empire • Emperor Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s policy of accommodation & sought to impose Islamic supremacy • Music & dancing were banned at court • They reimposed the special tax on non. Muslims • This prompted various movements of oppositions to the Mughals • This fracture of the Mughal Empire allowed for the eventual take over by the British at the end of the 18 th century

Muslims & Christians in the Ottoman Empire • Around 1300, the Ottoman began to sweep into the Middle East, North Africa, & southeastern Europe to create the Islamic world’s most significant empire • Turkish women who were originally in open association with men were now veiled & secluded • However, some women had influence in political matters & all women retained important property rights • Ottoman law protected women’s rights in legal matters of marriage, divorce, & inheritance • Protection of the “Holy Cities” now fell to the Ottoman Empire

Muslims & Christians in the Ottoman Empire • The Ottoman Empire was the site of a highly significant cross-cultural encounter • Istanbul became the capital city of the Ottoman Empire • The Ottoman Empire controlled the Balkans which was predominately Christian • Some Christians welcomed Ottoman conquest because taxes were lighter • The Ottomans also practiced devshirme where young Christian boys were required to leave home to learn Turkish & civil administration

Muslims & Christians in the Ottoman Empire • Although the Ottomans were tolerant towards Christians, it still threated Christendom • However, the Europeans did regularly interacted with the Ottoman empire • They painted the splendors the Islamic world in Renaissance paintings • The Europeans traded with & sometimes allied themselves with the Ottoman Empire