Poetry Types of Poetry Narrative Poetry Narrative poetry

Poetry

Types of Poetry

Narrative Poetry • Narrative poetry is a form of poetry that tells a story, often making the voices of a narrator and characters as well; the entire story is usually written in metered verse. Narrative poems do not need rhyme. The poems that make up this genre may be short or long, and the story it relates to may be complex. Usually objective with a set stanza format. Epic poems are narrative poems as are ballads.

Ballad A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story and was traditionally set to music. English language ballads are typically composed of four-line stanzas that follow an ABCB or ABAB rhyme scheme.

Epic • The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style.

Lyrical Poetry • Lyric poems are written from the first person's point of view. This form of poetry does not tell a story portraying characters or actions. This form usually revolves around the emotions, perceptions, and state of mind of the poet. Elegies, Odes, & Sonnets are types of lyrical poetry.

Elegy An elegy is a mournful poem about the death of a person or more rarely a group. Elegy can also express a feeling of loss in a broader sense, such as for a way of life or reflection of human mortality. • 1. It is a type of lyrical poetry & focuses on expressing emotions or thoughts. • 2. It uses formal language & structure. • 3. It may mourn the passing of life & beauty or someone dear to the speaker. • 4. It may explore questions about nature of life & death or immortality of soul. • 5. It may express the speaker’s anger about death.

Lyrical Poetry Example Dying by Emily Dickinson I heard a fly buzz when I died; The stillness round my form Was like the stillness in the air Between the heaves of storm. The eyes beside had wrung them dry, And breaths were gathering sure For that last onset, when the king Be witnessed in his power. I willed my keepsakes, signed away What portion of me I Could make assignable, -and then There interposed a fly, With blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz, Between the light and me; And then the windows failed, and then I could not see to see. Explanation: Observe the rhyme scheme of the poem, it is ABCB and uses and Iambic meter. It's broken up into quatrains. The poem does not speak of a particular character, or tell a story. It speaks of an observation she makes just when she is about to die. Her detachment from all the worldly belongings including the people that were present around her deathbed is evident in the poem. The poem is hypothetical and expresses her intense emotions about death as she lays dying.

Ode • Ode is a poem that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. In Odes, poets praise people, natural scenes, and abstract ideas. It is highly solemn and serious in its tone and subject matter, and usually is used with elaborate patterns of stanzas. However, the tone is often formal. • https: //www. poetryfoundation. org/poems/44477/o de-on-a-grecian-urn

Sonnet • The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word “sonetto, ” which means a “little song” or small lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme. • https: //www. poets. org/poetsorg/poem/shall-i-compare-theesummers-day-sonnet-18

Sonnet (Example) Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimmed; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance, or nature’s changing course, untrimmed; But thy eternal summer shall not fade, Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st, Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his shade, When in eternal lines to Time thou grow’st. So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Epitaph • a phrase or statement written in memory of a person who has died, especially as an inscription on a tombstone.

Haiku • Haiku is a traditional form of Japanese poetry. Haiku poems consist of 3 lines. The first and last lines of a Haiku have 5 syllables and the middle line has 7 syllables. The lines rarely rhyme. Often focuses on images from nature. • Example: Lonely forest trail Pine needles cover the path Into its deep heart

Limerick • A limerick is a poetic form comprised of one stanza with five lines and a rhyme scheme of AABBA that usually is humorous. The humor can be clean, though it often verges on the obscene. The first, second, and fifth lines of limerick examples often contain three anapestic feet while third and fourth lines are shorter, with just two anapestic feet. • Example: • There was an old fellow named Green, • Who grew so abnormally lean, • And flat, and compressed, • That his back touched his chest, • And sideways he couldn't be seen.

Pastoral Poetry • Originally a Greek poem about shepherds, it later came to include poems about the beauty of rural life. The pastoral poem elevates the life of the shepherd or shepherdess, versus the evils of the city. The pastoral poem presents an idealistic, almost Utopian, view of rural life. It is interesting to note that most poets who wrote pastoral poems were not really from the country. Their point of view was more idealistic than realistic. • https: //www. poetrysoup. com/poems/short/pastoral? term=pastoral

Hymn • A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος (hymnos), which means "a song of praise".

Poetic Structure

Foot • The literary device “foot” is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and unstressed syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line ( | ), whereas the unstressed syllable is represented by a cross ( X ).

Foot (cont. ) • Iamb: Combination of unstressed and stressed syllable – (da. DUM) • Trochee: Combination of stressed and unstressed syllables – (DUMda) • Spondee: Combination of two stressed syllables – (DUMDUM) • Anapest: Combination of two unstressed and a stressed syllable – (dada. DUM) • Dactyl: Combination of stressed and two unstressed syllables – (DUMdada) • Amphibrach: Combination of unstressed, stressed and unstressed syllable – (da. DUMda) • Pyrrhic: Combination of two unstressed syllables – (dada)

Foot (cont. ) The iamb saunters through my book. Trochées rush and tumble; While the anapest runs like a babbling brook, Dactyls are stately and classical. • Links: • https: //literarydevices. net/foot/

Meter The Number of feet in a line of poetry. Metrical Lines: 1. Monometer = 1 foot 2. Dimeter = 2 feet 3. Trimeter = 3 feet 4. Tetrameter = 4 feet 5. Pentameter = 5 feet 6. Hexameter = 6 feet 7. Heptameter = 7 feet = Septenary 8. Octameter = 8 feet http: //shakespearestudyguide. com/meter. html

Rhyme Scheme • Rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem. • The people along the sand (A) • All turn and look one way. (B) • They turn their back on the land. (A) • They look at the sea all day. (B) • As long as it takes to pass (C) • A ship keeps raising its hull; (C) • The wetter ground like glass (D) • Reflects a standing gull. (D)

Blank Verse • Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as “un-rhymed iambic pentameter. ” • Ex: Hark, what light through yonder window breaks Tis the east and Juliet is the sun -Regular rhythm, but not rhyming.

Free Verse • poetry that does not rhyme or have a regular meter (Rhythm) • Ex: Call the roller of big cigars, The muscular one, and bid him whip In kitchen cups concupiscent curds. Let the wenches dawdle in such dress As they are used to wear, and let the boys Bring flowers in last month’s newspapers. Let be be finale of seem. The only emperor is the emperor of ice-cream.

Internal Rhyme • a rhyme involving a word in the middle of a line and another at the end of the line or in the middle of the next. • Same Line: Rhyme in the same line comes when the words rhyme in a single line. • For example, “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, • Separate Line: Rhyme in separate lines comes when two or more words rhyme in the middle of the separate lines. For example, • “While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door. ” • End of, and Middle of Line: Rhyme of the words at the end of lines and words in the middle of the lines come when the words at the end of lines rhyme with the words in the middle of the next lines. For example: • Eagerly I wished the morrow; – vainly I had sought to borrow • From my books surcease of sorrow – sorrow for the lost Lenore

Approximate Rhyme • Exact rhyme is when the rhyme repeats the exact same vowel sound and consonant sounds. In the previous example, 'happy' and 'snappy' have exact rhyme. The short 'a' sound is followed by a 'p' sound a long 'e'. The sounds are exactly the same. However, some poets also use approximate rhyme, (or slant rhyme) which is rhyme where the sounds are similar but not exactly the same. • Ex: This little piggy went to market, this little piggy stayed home. This little piggy had roast beef, this little piggy had none.

Stanza • In poetry, a stanza is a division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming scheme. • Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and paragraphs include connected thoughts, and are set off by a space. The number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme.

Stanza (cont) Example: Gaily bedight, A gallant knight, In sunshine and in shadow, Had journeyed long, Singing a song, In search of Eldorado. But he grew old This knight so bold And o’er his heart a shadow Fell as he found No spot of ground That looked like Eldorado.

Couplet • A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances. • It could be an independent poem, and might be a part of other poems, such as sonnets in Shakespearean poetry. If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is independent, and hence it is called a “closed couplet. ” A couplet that cannot render a proper meaning alone is called an “open couplet. ”

Couplet (cont. ) • Ex: “The time is out of joint, O cursed spite That ever I was born to set it right!” - The last two lines here: But thy eternal summer shall not fade, Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st, Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his shade, When in eternal lines to Time thou grow’st. So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Verse • The literary device verse denotes a single line of poetry. The term can also be used to refer to a stanza or other parts of poetry.

Sound Devices • Alliteration—repetition of initial consonant sounds • *Carrie’s cat clawed her couch, creating chaos. • *Mike’s microphone made much music. • Assonance—the repetition of vowel sounds • *Try to light the fire tonight. • *The crumbling thunder of seas… • Consonance—repetition of final consonant sounds • *He struck a streak of bad luck. • *All mammals named Sam are clammy.

Sound Devices (Cont. ) • Onomatopoeia, pronounced on-uh-mat-uh–pee–uh, is defined as a word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting. • Ex: The buzzing bee flew away. The sack fell into the river with a splash. The books fell on the table with a loud thump. He looked at the roaring.

Poetic Devices

Connotation • Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal meanings or denotations. These associations can be positive or negative. • Ex: “What do you expect from a politician? ” (Here the word ‘politician’ has a negative connotation as someone who shouldn’t be trusted. ) • Ex: • “There’s no place like home. ” (The word ‘home’ has a positive connotation as a place of comfort and security. )

Denotation • Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings. • Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for the meaning of the word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is “a type of pigeon, a wild and domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs. ” In literature, however, you frequently see “dove” used to mean a symbol of peace.

Allusion • Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. • • “Don’t act like a Romeo in front of her. ” – “Romeo” is a reference to Shakespeare’s Romeo, a passionate lover of Juliet, in “Romeo and Juliet”. • • The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”. • • “This place is like a Garden of Eden. ” – This is a biblical allusion to the “garden of God” in the Book of Genesis.

Euphemism • The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to hide its unpleasantness • You are becoming a little thin on top (bald). • Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant). • He is a little tipsy (drunk). • He kicked the bucket (died).

Metonymy • Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. -The pen is mightier than the sword. ” (Pen refers to written words, and sword to military force. ) -“The Oval Office was busy in work. ” (The Oval Office is a metonymy, as it stands for people who work in the office. ) -”John has a nice new ride. ” (The term ‘ride’ is a metonymy for car)

Synecdoche • Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of. Ex: -The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man. -The word “sails” refers to a whole ship. -The word “suit” refers to a businessman. -The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers. -The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.

Tone • Tone, in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. The manner in which a writer approaches this theme and subject is the tone. The tone can be formal, informal, serious, comic, sarcastic, sad, or cheerful, or it may be any other existing attitude. Consider the following examples of tone:

Tone Examples Example #1 Father: “We are going on a vacation. ” Son: “That’s great!!!” – The tone of son’s response is very cheerful. Example #2 Father: “We can’t go on vacation this summer. ” Son: “Yeah, great! That’s what I expected. ” – The son’s tone is sarcastic.

Tone Examples Example #3 “Yeah, your grades on this exam will be as good as the previous exams you’ve done oh so well on. ” – The tone is pessimistic in this example. Example #4 “Can someone tell me what the heck is going on here? ” – This has an aggressive tone.

Imagery • As a literary device, imagery consists of descriptive language that can function as a way for the reader to better imagine the world of the piece of literature and also add symbolism to the work. Imagery draws on the five senses, namely the details of taste, touch, sight, smell, and sound. Imagery can also pertain to details about movement or a sense of a body in motion (kinesthetic imagery) or the emotions or sensations of a person, such as fear or hunger (organic imagery or subjective imagery). Using imagery helps the reader develop a more fully realized understanding of the imaginary world that the author has created.

Imagery Examples • Taste: The familiar tang of his grandmother’s cranberry sauce reminded him of his youth. • Sound: The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days afterward. • Sight: The sunset was the most gorgeous they’d ever seen; the clouds were edged with pink and gold. • Smell: After eating the curry, his breath reeked of garlic. • Touch: The tree bark was rough against her skin.

Simile • Simile (pronounced sim–uh-lee) is a literary term where you use “like” “as” or “than” to compare two different things and show a common quality between them. A simile is different from a simple comparison in that it usually compares two unrelated things. • He’s as thin as a rail! • She moved like a deer. • Faster than a speeding bullet.

Metaphor • A comparison od two unlike things without using “like” “as” or “than. ” • My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry. ) • The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult. ) • It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships) • The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him. ) • Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)

Personification • Giving human qualities to animals or inanimate objects • • Ex: The flood raged over the entire village. It was early morning – I met a cat yawning and stretching in the street. The skyscraper was so tall that it seemed to kiss the sky. The full moon peeped through partial clouds. The ship danced over the undulating waves of the ocean. When he sat the test, the words and the ideas fled from his mind.

Oxymoron • Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as “cruel kindness, ” or “living death”. • Ex: 1. Open secret 2. Tragic comedy 3. Seriously funny 4. Awfully pretty 5. Foolish wisdom 6. Original copies 7. Liquid gas

Symbolism • Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense. Symbolism can take different forms. Generally, it is an object representing another, to give an entirely different meaning that is much deeper and more significant. Sometimes, however, an action, an event or a word spoken by someone may have a symbolic value. For instance, “smile” is a symbol of friendship. Similarly, the action of someone smiling at you may stand as a symbol of the feeling of affection which that person has for you.

Symbolism Examples • The dove is a symbol of peace. • red rose, or the color red, stands for love or romance. • When mourning, black is a symbol that represents death. • A ladder may stand as a symbol for a connection between heaven and earth. • A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

Repetition • Repetition is a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer and more memorable. There are several types of repetition commonly used in both prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it could be a word, a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text. Repetition is not distinguished solely as a figure of speech, but more as a rhetorical device.

Paradox • a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way. • Ex: You must spend money to make money. I know one thing; that I know nothing. Deep down, you're really shallow. "What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young. " "I can resist anything but temptation. " The second sentence is false. The first sentence is true.

Verbal Irony • Verbal irony occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. • Saying “Oh, fantastic!” when the situation is actually very poor • Saying something's as clear as mud • If someone got in a fender bender and said, "Guess today's my lucky day…"

Verbal Irony Literature Examples • Johnathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal is a classic example of verbal irony. He begins seemingly in earnest, discussing the sad state of destitute children: • […] whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children sound, useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of the public as to have his statue set up for a preserver of the nation. • Seems reasonable enough. But things take a very ironic turn: • I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.

Situational Irony • Occurs when the audience expects one thing to happen, but then something else (usually the opposite) occurs. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to theme of a story. • Ex: The whole story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz presents a case of situational irony. Dorothy goes to the wizard in order to find a way home, only to learn that she is capable of doing so herself • A very famous example of this form of irony occurs toward the end of the short story, The story of an Hour, by Kate Chopin. In this story, the wife of Mr. Brently comes to know that he is no more alive and has died from an accident, so she feels contended to live a long life of freedom with no restrictions. However, at the end of the tale, her husband comes back unexpectedly and, upon seeing him, instantly she dies from shock.

Dramatic Irony • Occurs when the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the speech of actors takes on unusual meanings. Ex: 1. Girl in a horror film hides in a closet where the killer just went (the audience knows the killer is there, but she does not). 2. In Macbeth, King Duncan says that he trusts Macbeth ("he was a gentleman on whom I built an absolute trust), but the audience knows that Macbeth is plotting to kill Duncan. 3. The Greek myth of Oedipus, as told in Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex, is full of dramatic irony. King Oedipus wants to expose the killer of the former king, Laius. The audience knows that Oedipus is the killer, but Oedipus does not realize that he killed the king. 4. In Snow White and the Seven Dwarves, we know that the old woman bringing the apple is the wicked queen who wants to kill Snow White, but she does not. She purchases the apple, takes a bite, and falls.

Understatement • An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is. • For example, you win 10 million dollars in a lottery. When you tell a news reporter “I am delighted, ” you are making an understatement. Similarly, suppose a team loses to its opponent 50 to 0 in a soccer match, and the captain of the team says in a post-match ceremony, “We did not do well, ” it is an understatement because he is trying to decrease the intensity of the loss.

Idiom • a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words (e. g. , raining cats and dogs). They differ greatly between cultures. • A chip on your shoulder - means you are holding a grudge • Sick as a dog - means you are very ill • Rub someone the wrong way - meaning to annoy or bother • Jump the gun - would mean to be doing something early • Pay the piper - means you need to face the consequences of your actions