Pine Forge Press an Imprint of SAGE Publications

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. What is sociology? Sociology: the scientific study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 2 The Sociological Perspective • Stresses the social contexts in which people live • Looks at how people are influenced by their society and how social forces affect human behavior • “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond common sense for explanations of why people act the way they do

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 3 The Sociological Perspective • “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond common sense for explanations of why people act the way they do

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 4 The Sociological Perspective • Stresses the social contexts in which people live • Looks at how people are influenced by their society and how social forces affect human behavior • “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond common sense for explanations of why people act the way they do

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 5 The Sociological Perspective • “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond common sense for explanations of why people act the way they do

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 6 Group Dynamics • Dyads – Two people • Triads – Three People • As a group increases in size it becomes more formal and more stable • Coalitions may begin to form • Greater Diffusion of Responsibility may occur in larger groups – “Someone else will take care of it” • As a group gets larger, smaller groups may form • Groupthink may occur- collective tunnelvision

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. What is sociology? Comparing the social sciences • All study aspects of human behavior and social life, but each has a different focus: • Cultural anthropology: the culture or way of life of a society • Psychology: individual behavior and mental processes • Political Science: government systems and power • Economics: economic conditions and how people organize, produce, and distribute goods • Sociology: human interaction, groups, and social structure

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. What Do Sociologists Do—and Why? Some practical rewards of sociological study: • Self-awareness and self-improvement • Better understanding of social situations • Objective, systematic understanding of problems • Understanding of diverse cultural perspectives • Ability to assess the impact of social policies • Appreciation of the complexities of social life • Useful skills

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. What Do Sociologists Do—and Why? What sociologists do • Work in colleges and universities • Teach, conduct research • Work in social service organizations • Address interpersonal relations or deviant behavior • Work in business • Address organizational needs or human resources • Work in government • Provide data for policy and planning

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. What Do Sociologists Do—and Why? Useful skills honed in sociological training • Communication & interpersonal • Analysis and research • Computer/technical • Flexibility • Leadership • Sensitivity to diversity • Organizing and planning • Conceptual, problem-solving • Personal values

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Social World Model • Levels of analysis: size of the social groups being considered, from the smallest to the largest • Understanding sociology requires understanding multiple levels of analysis • The social world model allows us to picture levels of analysis in our social environment as an interconnected series of small groups, organizations, institutions, and societies • Important question: How do the levels connect or conflict with one another?

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Social World Model Social Structures • Social units: interconnected parts of the social world • Social structure: a particular combination of social units that orders our lives • Social institutions: provide the rules, roles, and relationships to meet human needs and guide human behavior

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Social World Model Social Processes • Social processes: actions taken by people in social units. For example, • Process of socialization: how we learn to be productive members of society • Process of stratification: process of layering people on the basis of birth, income, or other factors • Process of change: every social unit is continually changing, and change in each unit affects others

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Social World Model Studying the Social World: Levels of Analysis • The social world can be studied at many levels: • Micro-level (individuals and small groups) • Importance: micro interactions form the basis of all social organizations • Macro-level (nations, global & international trends) • Importance: helps explain how larger social forces shape everyday life • Each level adds depth to a topic

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 16 Social Location • • Sociologists study ones social location to understand human behavior Social Location refers to the corners in life that people occupy • Jobs, Social Class, Race, Occupation, Sex, Religion and other demographics • Social Location can shape our ideas of who we are and what we should attain in life

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 The Birth of Sociology 17 • Sociology emerged in the middle of the 1800’s during a period of social upheaval • The Industrial Revolution challenged traditional ideas about social life • The scientific method, which was used in the physical sciences, led to the birth of Sociology

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Auguste Comte: 18 Founder of Sociology • Lived in France • Comte was the 1 st Sociologist to advocate using positivism to studying social life • Coined the term “Sociology” (the study of society) • Advocate of social reform 1798 -1857

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Herbert Spencer: 19 Social Darwinism • Lived in

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Karl Marx: Class Conflict • Class conflict is the engine of human history • Proletariat vs. the Bourgeoisie • Marxism is not the same as Communism • “I am not a Communist” 1818 -1883 20

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Emile Durkheim: 21 Social Integration • 1 st Professor of Sociology • Studied suicide rates in several European countries in which he concluded social forces underlie suicidal behavior • We must examine how social forces, such as social integration, affect human behavior 1858 -1917

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Max Weber: 23 Religion • Lived in Germany • Disagreed with Marx • Religion is the central force in social change • The Protestant Ethic is tied to the 1864 -1920 rise of capitalism (the self denying approach to life)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 W. E. B. Du Bois and Race Relations 24 • 1 st African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard • Every year between 1896 and 1914 he published a book on race relations between African Americans and White • Founded the N. A. A. C. P (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 26 Three Theoretical Perspectives • Theory-a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work • Sociologists use theories to conduct sociological research • Allows Sociologists to view a social problem from many different perspectives • Symbolic Interactionist • Functional Analysis • Conflict Theory

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Symbolic Interactionism • Symbolic Interactionists believe that individuals evaluate their own conduct by comparing themselves with others • Symbolic Interactionists study: • How people interpret symbols • How people interact one on one • How people behave according to how they define themselves and others 27

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Rational choice theory (or exchange theory) • Main ideas: • People act by making rational, self-interested decisions that will maximize their rewards and minimize costs • Main criticisms: • Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal mental processes • Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior • People do not always act rationally or accurately assess their self-interest

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Functional Analysis • The Functional Analysis perspective views society as a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together. • Functional Analysists study: • The structure of society • How each part of society has certain functions that must be fulfilled • What happens to society when dysfunctions occur 29

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 30 Conflict Theory Founded by Karl Marx Groups competing for scarce resources Groups competing for power and authority Conflict can be positive as it can bring about positive change • •

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Macro- Level Theories Feminist sociological theory • Main ideas: • Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism • Social hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage men • Sociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting in an incomplete view of the world • Main criticisms: • Theory should address the intersection of gender, race, class, and other inequalities

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Ideas Underlying Science • How do we know? • Sociology uses scientific methods to expand knowledge of the social world • The Systematic use of theories and research methods makes sociology much more than guesswork or opinion

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Empirical Research & Social Theory & research are interdependent Theories are statements regarding how facts are related to each other Sociological theories attempt to explain and make predictions about the social world The researcher’s choice of theory and research method is guided by the research question and level of social analysis Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look for Researchers use facts to test theories

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. How Sociologists Study the Social World The research process • Planning a research study • Designing the research plan and method for collecting data • Making sense of the data

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Planning a Study Steps in planning a study: 1. Define the problem clearly The question must be specific and precise 2. Find out what is already known about topic Review existing theory and research 3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship between two variables, which can be tested Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence across persons, places, or time Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a specific measurement

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Planning a Study (cont. ) Research aims to find causal relationships Ways that two variables can be related: Correlation: variables change together Causation: one variable causes another to change Independent variable (IV): the cause of change Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship Control variables help eliminate effects not related to the hypothesis, especially spurious relationships

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Designing Research & Collecting Data Research design is important: the value of a study depends upon the quality of its data Research methods depend upon the level of analysis of the research question Primary sociological research methods: Surveys Field studies Controlled experiments Existing sources

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 39 Secondary Analysis When the researcher gathers information from secondary sources it is referred to as secondary analysis. • newspapers, historical documents, police reports, and other data collected by various societal agencies. Ø Advantage: It can be a valuable way to collect information in a timely manner Ø Disadvantage: Some information may be missing or inaccurate

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Designing Research & Collecting Data Sampling (all methods) • Sample: a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the larger population being studied • Types of samples: • Representative: accurately reflects the population being studied, so findings can be generalized to the population • Random: every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample; the most common type of representative sample

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Analysis: Making Sense of the Data Analyzing data • The goal is to determine relationships between the variables • Variables must be clear • Researcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing relationships among variables • Discussion with and criticism from other researchers aids accuracy of analysis • Study should be replicable, or capable of being repeated so results can be compared

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Analysis: Making Sense of the Data Reporting conclusions • The researcher develops a report, including • Outline of project • Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that summarize the data • Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data? • Interpretations and recommendations • In social science no one study can definitively prove a hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or reject a hypothesis

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Ethical Issues in Social Research Sociological research is bound by ethical codes which generally require that: • Research subjects give informed consent to participate in studies • Subjects are not harmed or put at risk • Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily • Subjects’ private information is protected • Study findings do not cause harm Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and other research institutions help protect subjects

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 44 What is Culture? • Culture is: • The language, beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors passed on from one generation to the next • How is this accomplished? • Material vs. Nonmaterial Cultures • Cultural Lag: When nonmaterial culture lags behind material culture

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Ethnocentrism and Culture Shock 45 • What is Normal, Natural, or Usual? • We believe our ways are “Normal” • Ethnocentrism-the belief that our culture is the “best” page 271 and vagina monologues • Culture Shock- coming into contact with a culture that is different from what we know

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Components of Symbolic Culture • Symbols • Gestures

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Five Purposes of Language • • • 47 Allows Human Experience to Be Cumulative Provides a Social or Shared Past Provides a Social or Shared Future Allows Shared Perspectives Allows Complex, Shared, Goal-Directed Behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Norms and Sanctions 48 Norms - Expectations or rules for behavior v Informal and Formal Norms v Norms will change as cultures change • Sanctions - Reaction to following or breaking norms • Positive Sanctions • Negative Sanctions •

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Folkways, Mores, and Taboos • Folkways - Norms that are not strictly enforced • Mores - Norms, when broken, go against a society’s basic core values • Taboos - Norms, when broken, are considered repulsive • Stiff Book • Double Standard book • German men • Ramstein 49

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Subcultures and Countercultures 50 Subculture: Ø A world within the dominant culture Ø The norms and values do not clash with those of the dominant culture Countercultures: Ø A world within the dominant culture Ø The norms and values clash with those of the dominant culture

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 51 Values in U. S. Society Achievement and Success Progress Equality Individualism Material Comfort Racism and Group Superiority Activity and Work Humanitarianis m Education Efficiency and Practicality Freedom Religiosity Science and Technology Democracy Romantic Love

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Value Clusters and Contradictions n Value Clusters: Values

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Emerging Values • Leisure • Self-fulfillment • Physical

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 54 Cultural Diffusion and Cultural Leveling • Cultural Diffusion: The spreading of cultural characteristics from one culture to another • Why is this happening so rapidly? • Cultural Leveling: When cultures start to become similar to each other

55 What is human nature? • Nature vs. Nurture • Over the years studies have concluded that language and intimate interaction are essential to the development of human characteristics

56 What is human nature? • Feral Children • Over the centuries people have occasionally found children living in the woods. • • • Bit Drank by lapping water Hunted and ate raw meet, grass Growled Walked on all fours Showed an insensitivity pain and cold

57 What is human nature? • Isolated children- show what humans might be like if secluded from society at an early age • Low IQ • No language skills Austrian daughter -

58 What is human nature? • Institutionalized children- show that traits such as intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness are the result of early close relationships with other humans.

59 What is human nature? • Deprived animals- studies of monkeys raised in isolation have reached similar conclusions to those involving human youth. 1. The longer and more severe the isolation the more difficult the adjustment becomes Babies “do not” naturally develop into human adults Although their bodies grow, human interaction is required for them to acquire the traits we consider normal human beings 2. 3.

60 socialization • The process by which we learn the ways of society • Does society make us human?

61 Socialization through life • Childhood (birth to 12) • Formative years

62 Socialization through life • Adolescence (13 -17) • Inner turmoil and rebellion

63 Socialization through life • Young adulthood (19 -29) • Continuing education, stability, general optimism

64 Socialization through life • The middle years (30 -65) • (30 -49) family and careers • (50 -65) contemplate mortality

65 Socialization through life • The older years ( 66+) • The early older years with medical technology and public awareness, this can be an extension of the middle years • The later older years, this is marked by frailty and illness and eventually death

66 Life course and social factors 1. 2. 3. The time period in which the person is born and lives His or her life as well as social location The individual’s social class, gender and race

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Agents of Socialization • Agents of socialization: people, organizations, and institutions that enable us to learn the beliefs, values, and behaviors of our cultures • Micro-level: family, peer group, local organizations • Meso-level: educational, religious institutions; media • Formal: socialization is stated goal (e. g. , the family) • Informal: socialization isn’t a stated goal but occurs anyway (e. g. , the media) • Agents of socialization shift over the life course • Different agents’ messages may concur or conflict

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Development of the Self: Micro-Level Analysis • Self: the perceptions we have of who we are, derived from our perceptions of the way others respond to us • The development of the self allows us to interact with others and function in the social world • We are not born with a self; its development begins in infancy • Biology and society both contribute to the development of the self • The self, our ability to be aware of ourselves as individuals, may be distinctive to humans

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Looking Glass Self • A symbolic interactionist theory of the self developed by Charles H. Cooley • The looking glass: “Each to each a looking-glass Reflects the other that doth pass. ”

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Microanalytical Perspective • Stereotypes – Assumptions about the

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 71 Microanalytical Perspective (Dramaturgy) • Erving Goffman •

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 72 Dramatury (Role Conflict and Role Strain) • Role Conflict – a conflict between two separate roles The more roles you play, the more conflict you may experience • Role Strain – a strain within the same role

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 74 Microanalytical Perspective (Ethnomethodology) • Ethnomethodology - The study of how people use background assumptions to get through everyday life • Harold Garfinkle’s Experiments • What happens when you break the basic rules of social life?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 75 Microanalytical Perspective (Thomas Theorem) • Thomas Theorem – W. I. Thomas • THE DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION Our behavior depends not on the objective but on the subjective interpretation of reality. Ø We behave according to the way we perceive the world

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 76 Microanalytical Perspective (Personal Space) • Personal Space (Edward Hall) – a invisible bubble by which we surround ourselves • 4 Levels: • Intimate 18 inches apart • Personal 18 inches to four feet • Social 4 to 12 feet • Public 12 feet plus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 77 Mead and Role Taking (Socialization Process) • Children go through three stages in the development of the self 1) Imitation –Children imitate significant others 2) Play – “Dressing Up” 3) Games – Generalized Other – What the groups thinks about the individual; the individual takes on multiple roles

78 Freud and the development of personality • Personality consists of three elements 1. The Id The Ego The Superego 2. 3. • As sociologists we reject this because Freud’s view is that these elements are inborn and unconscious, it denies that social factors influence our behavior.

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Parts of the Self Mead’s parts of the Self: • The “I”: spontaneous, unpredictable, impulsive, acts without considering social consequences • The “me”: the reflexive part of the self, formed through role-taking, that knows the rules of society and attempts to control and direct the “I” into socially acceptable behavior • The “me” requires the ability to take the role of others, anticipating others’ reactions

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. The Process of Resocialization • Resocialization: the process of abandoning one or more social positions in favor of others that are more suitable for a newly acquired status • Resocialization may occur in a total institution, in which people are isolated from the outside world and lead bureaucratically regimented lives

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Families: Micro-Level Socialization • Families use positive and negative sanctions to help teach children right and wrong • The number and type of sanctions shape the socialization process and the self • Family socialization differs by • Culture • Sub-culture • Number of children in the household and birth order

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Social Class: Meso-Level Socialization • Social class: the wealth, power, and prestige rankings individuals hold in society • Social class and socialization: Parents socialize children to meet expectations of the social class into which they are born • Middle class: autonomy, creativity, self-direction • Working class: rule-following, respect authority • Class socialization in the family impacts later socialization in school

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Electronic Media: Meso-Level Socialization • Electronic media as socialization agents: television, computers, internet, DVDs, video games, audio • Concerns: • Those who control the mass media can influence socialization within the home • What messages do these agents of socialization send to children? • What is the impact of children spending more time with media and less time with caregivers and peers?

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Socialization and Macro-Level Issues Socialization in a globalized world • Transnationalism: the situation of individuals or families who have national loyalty to more than one country, often a result of migration • May result in multiple and conflicting messages about appropriate behaviors • Global communications and events • May lead us to interact with diverse others, or solidify feelings of “we” vs. “they”

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. , 2011. Policy and Practice • Many policy questions and topics require understanding of socialization • Parenting and child-care • The education system • Retirement • Community development • Patriotism and global citizenship • Sociologists provide and interpret data for policymakers and try to solve problems by working with state agencies, consulting firms, and foundations

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 86 The Macrosociological Perspective Ø Sociological Significance of Social Structure • Guides Our Behavior • Behavior Decided by Location in Social Structure Ø Culture • Group’s Language, Beliefs, Values, Behaviors, Gestures • Material Objects • Page 88

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 88 The Macrosociological Perspective Ø Social Class Divides

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 89 The Macrosociological Perspective Ø Social Status – Position a person occupies • Ascribed –a status one is born with • Achieved –a status one earns • Master Status-cuts across all other statuses one holds • Status Set-all of the statuses one holds

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 90 The Macrosociological Perspective Ø Roles – Behaviors associated with ones status • You Occupy a Status • You Play a Role • Ones role will change as ones status changes

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 Groups and Social Institutions 91 Ø Groups – People Who Regularly and Consciously Interact and think of themselves as belonging together Ø Social Institutions – Means Developed by Societies to Meet Basic Needs • The more industrialized the society the more formal the institution