Phys 21202160 Spring 2017 A Dzyubenko http www

A Bit of History l Ancient Greeks – Observed and “identified” electric and magnetic phenomena as early as 700 BC Found that amber, when rubbed, became electrified and attracted pieces of straw or feathers l Magnetic forces were discovered by observing magnetite attracting iron l

A Bit More of History l William Gilbert 1600 Found that electrification was not limited to amber l Charles Coulomb 1785 Confirmed the inverse square relationship of electrical forces

History Final l Hans Oersted 1819 – Compass needle deflects when placed near an electrical current l Michael Faraday 1831 – A wire moved near a magnet, an electric current is observed in the wire l James Clerk Maxwell 1865 -1873 – Formulated the laws of electromagnetism l Heinrich Hertz 1888 – Verified Maxwell’s equations = complete theory

Properties of Electric Charges l Two types of charges exist: they are called positive and negative – Named by Benjamin Franklin l Unlike charges attract one another and Like charges repel

Properties of Electric Charges l Electric charge is always conserved: Charge is not created, only exchanged l Objects become charged because negative charge (electrons) is transferred from one object to another

Properties of Electric Charges Nature’s basic carrier of positive charge is the proton – Protons rarely move from one material to another because they are held firmly in the nucleus Exception: electrolytes l Nature’s basic carrier of negative charge is the electron – Gaining or losing electrons is how an object becomes charged (typically)

Properties of Electric Charges l Charge l is quantized All charge is a multiple of a fundamental unit of charge e: q=Ne Quarks are the exception l Electrons have a charge of – e l Protons have a charge of +e

Elementary Particles: Charges and Masses

Quick quiz l If you rub an inflated balloon against your hair, the two materials attract each other. Is the amount of charge present in the system of the balloon and your hair after rubbing (a) less than, (b) the same as, or (c) more than the amount of charge present before rubbing? (b) the same

Conductors l Conductors are materials in which electrons move freely through the material – Copper Cu, aluminum Al, and silver Ag are good conductors – When a conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily distributes itself over the entire surface of the conductor

Insulators l Insulators are materials in which all electrons are bound to atoms and cannot move freely through the material – Glass and rubber are examples of insulators – When insulators are charged by rubbing, only the rubbed area becomes charged l There is almost no tendency for the charge to move into other regions of the material

Semiconductors l The characteristics of semiconductors are between those of insulators and conductors – Silicon Si and germanium Ge are examples of semiconductors The electrical properties of semiconductors can be changed over many of orders of magnitude by the addition of controlled amounts of certain atoms to the materials (called doping)

Charging by Conduction A charged object (the rod) is placed in contact with another object (the conducting sphere) l Some electrons on the rod can move to the sphere l When the rod is removed, the sphere is left with a charge l The object being charged is always left with a charge having the same sign as the object doing the charging l

Charging by Induction l A negatively charged rubber rod is brought near an uncharged sphere l The charges in the sphere are redistributed

Charging by Induction l The region of the sphere nearest the negatively charged rod has an excess of positive charge because of the migration of electrons away from this location l A grounded conducting wire is connected to the sphere – Allows some of the electrons to move from the sphere to the ground

Charging by Induction l The wire to ground is removed, the sphere is left with an excess of induced positive charge l The positive charge on the sphere is evenly distributed due to the repulsion between the positive charges l Charging by induction requires no contact with the object inducing the charge

Charging Objects by Induction l In most neutral atoms or molecules, the center of positive charge coincides with the center of negative charge In the presence of a charged object, these centers may separate slightly – This results in more positive charge on one side of the molecule than on the other side This realignment of charge on the surface of an insulator is known as polarization

An Example of Polarization l. A charged comb attracts neutral but polarized bits of paper

QUICK QUIZ 15. 1 If a suspended object A is attracted to object B, which is charged, we can conclude that (a) object A is uncharged, (b) object A is charged, (c) object B is positively charged, or (d) object A may be either charged or uncharged.

QUICK QUIZ 15. 1 ANSWER (d). Object A could possess a net charge whose sign is opposite that of the excess charge on B. If object A is neutral, B would also attract it by creating an induced charge on the surface of A: .

Coulomb’s Law l Charles Coulomb (1736 -1806) l Measured the magnitudes of the electric forces between charged objects using the torsion balance, which he invented

Coulomb’s Law l The electric forces between charged spheres A and B causes the spheres to either attract or repel each other l The resulting motion cause the suspended fiber to twist l A measurement of the angle of the twist provides a quantitative measure of the electric force We will use the term point charge to mean a particle of zero size that carries an electric charge

Coulomb’s Law, cont. l An electrical force between two point charges has the following properties: l It is inversely proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and directed along the line joining them l It is proportional to the product of the charges |q 1| and |q 2|on the two particles l It is attractive if the charges are of opposite signs and repulsive if the charges have the same signs

Coulomb’s Law, cont. l Mathematically, ke is called the Coulomb Constant l The value of ke depends on the choice of units l The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C) l The Coulomb constant ke in SI ke = 8. 99 x 109 N m 2/C 2

Vector Nature of Electric Forces l Two point charges are separated by a distance r l The like charges produce a repulsive force between them l The force on q 1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force on q 2 F 12= - F 21

Vector Nature of Forces l Two point charges are separated by a distance r l The unlike charges produce a attractive force between them l The force on q 1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force on q 2

The Electric Force l This is the second example of a field force l Gravity was the first l. A field force: the force is exerted by one object on another object even though there is no physical contact between them l There are some important differences between electrical and gravitational forces

Electrical Force Compared to Gravitational Force l Both are inverse square laws l The mathematical form of both laws is the same l Electrical forces can be either attractive or repulsive l Gravitational forces are always attractive

QUICK QUIZ 15. 2 Object A has a charge of +2 µC, and object B has a charge of +6 µC. Which statement is true: (a) FAB = – 3 FBA, (b) FAB = –FBA, or (c) 3 FAB = –FBA

QUICK QUIZ 15. 2 ANSWER (b). By Newton’s third law, the two objects will exert forces having equal magnitudes but opposite directions on each other.

The Superposition Principle l The resultant force on any one charge equals the vector sum of the forces exerted by the other individual charges that are present. l Remember to add the forces vectorially

Superposition Principle Example l The force exerted by q 1 on q 3 is F 13 l The force exerted by q 2 on q 3 is F 23 l The total force exerted on q 3 is the vector sum of F 13 and F 23

Electric Field l Faraday developed an approach to discussing fields l An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object, the source charge l When another charged object – the test charge – enters this electric field, the field exerts a force on the second charged object

Electric Field l. A charged particle, with charge Q, produces an electric field in the region of space around it l. A small test charge, qo, placed in the field, will experience a force

Electric Field l Definition of the electric field: l The electric field vector E at a point in space is the electric force Fe acting on a positive test charge q 0 placed at that point divided by the test charge l the units in SI: Newton per Coulomb (N/C=V/m)

Direction of Electric Field l The electric field produced by a negative charge is directed toward the charge l A positive test charge would be attracted to the negative source charge

Direction of Electric Field l The electric field produced by a positive charge is directed away from the charge l A positive test charge would be repelled from the positive source charge

More About a Test Charge and The Electric Field l The test charge is required to be a small charge – It can cause no rearrangement of the charges on the source charge l The electric field exists whether or not there is a test charge present l The Superposition Principle can be applied to the electric field if a group of charges is present

QUICK QUIZ 15. 3 A test charge of +3 µC is at a point P where the electric field due to other charges is directed to the right and has a magnitude of 4 106 N/C. If the test charge is replaced with a – 3 µC charge, the electric field at P (a) has the same magnitude but changes direction, (b) increases in magnitude and changes direction, (c) remains the same, or (d) decreases in magnitude and changes direction.

QUICK QUIZ 15. 3 ANSWER (c). The electric field at point P is due to charges other than the test charge. Thus, it is unchanged when the test charge is altered. However, the direction of the force this field exerts on the test change is reversed when the sign of the test charge is changed.

Problem Solving Strategy l Units When using ke, charges must be in Coulombs, distances in meters and force in Newtons l If values are given in other units, they must be converted l l Applying Coulomb’s Law to point charges Use the superposition principle for more than two charges l Use Coulomb’s Law to find the individual forces l Directions of forces are found by noting that like charges repel and unlike charges attract l

Problem Solving Strategies l Calculating Electric Fields of point charges The Superposition Principle can be applied if more than one charge is present l Use the equation to find the electric field due to the individual charges l The direction is given by the direction of the force on a positive test charge l

QUICK QUIZ 15. 4 A Styrofoam ball covered with a conducting paint has a mass of 5. 0 10 -3 kg and has a charge of 4. 0 C. What electric field directed upward will produce an electric force on the ball that will balance the weight of the ball? (a) 8. 2 102 N/C (b) 1. 2 104 N/C (c) 2. 0 10 -2 N/C (d) 5. 1 106 N/C

QUICK QUIZ 15. 4 ANSWER (b). The magnitude of the upward electrical force must equal the weight of the ball. That is: q. E = mg, so = 1. 2 × 104 N/C

QUICK QUIZ 15. 6 A free electron and free proton are placed in an identical electric field. Which of the following statements are true? (a) Each particle experiences the same electric force and the same acceleration. (b) The electric force on the proton is greater in magnitude than the force on the electron but in the opposite direction. (c) The electric force on the proton is equal in magnitude to the force on the electron, but in the opposite direction. (d) The magnitude of the acceleration of the electron is greater than that of the proton. (e) Both particles experience the same acceleration.

QUICK QUIZ 15. 6 ANSWER (c) and (d). The electron and the proton have equal magnitude charges of opposite signs. The forces exerted on these particles by the electric field have equal magnitude and opposite directions. The electron experiences an acceleration of greater magnitude than does the proton because the electron’s mass is much smaller than that of the proton.

Electric Field Lines l. A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns is to draw lines pointing in the direction of the field vector at any point l These are called electric field lines and were introduced by Michael Faraday

Electric Field Lines l The field lines are related to the field by: The electric field vector, E, is tangent to the electric field lines at each point. A direction is indicated by an arrow head The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field in a given region

Electric Field Line Patterns Point charge l The lines radiate equally in all directions l For a positive source charge, the lines will radiate outward l

Electric Field Line Patterns l For a negative source charge, the lines will point inward

Electric Field Line Patterns l An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges l The high density of lines between the charges indicates the strong electric field in this region

Electric Field Line Patterns l Two equal positive point charges At a great distance from the charges, the field would be approximately that of a single charge of 2 q l The bulging out of the field lines between the charges indicates the repulsion between the charges l The low field lines between the charges indicates a weak field in this region l

Electric Field Patterns l Unequal and unlike point charges l Note that two lines leave the +2 q charge for each line that terminates on -q

Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines l The lines must begin on positive charges and terminate on negative charges l l The In the case of an excess of charge, some lines will begin or end infinitely far away number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or ending on a negative charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge l No two field lines can cross each other

QUICK QUIZ 15. 7 Rank the magnitudes of the electric field at points A, B, and C in the figure below, largest magnitude first.

QUICK QUIZ 15. 7 ANSWER A, B, and C. The field is greatest at point A because this is where the field lines are closest together. The absence of lines at point C indicates that the electric field there is zero.

Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium A good electrical conductor contains electrons that are not bound to any atom and therefore are free to move about within the material When no net motion of charge occurs within a conductor, the conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium

Property 1 l The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conducting material – Consider if this were not true if there were an electric field inside the conductor, the free charge there would move and there would be a flow of charge l If there were a movement of charge, the conductor would not be in equilibrium l

Property 2 l Any excess charge on an isolated conductor resides entirely on its surface A direct result of the 1/r 2 repulsion between like charges in Coulomb’s Law l If some excess of charge could be placed inside the conductor, the repulsive forces would push them as far apart as possible, causing them to migrate to the surface l

Property 3 l The electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the conductor’s surface Consider what would happen it this was not true l The component along the surface would cause the charge to move l It would not be in equilibrium l

Property 4 l On an irregularly shaped conductor, the charge accumulates at locations where the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest (that is, at sharp points)

Property 4 Any excess charge moves to its surface l The charges move apart until an equilibrium is achieved l The amount of charge per unit area is less at the flat end l The forces from the charges at the sharp end produce a larger resultant force away from the surface l

Experiments to Verify Properties of Charges l Millikan l l Oil-Drop Experiment Measured the elementary charge, e Found every drop had a charge equal to some integer multiple of the elementary charge

Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

Van de Graaff Generator An electrostatic generator designed and built by Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929 l Charge is transferred to the dome by means of a rotating belt l Eventually an electrostatic discharge takes place l

Electric Flux l Consider an electric field: uniform in magnitude and direction l The product of the magnitude of the electric field E and a surface area A perpendicular to the field is called the electric flux E units of E : (Nm 2/C) Electric flux E is proportional to the number of electric field lines penetrating the surface

Electric Flux l If the area A is not perpendicular to the field lines? l Consider an area A which normal is at an angle to the uniform electric field. l Area A' is a projection of area A onto a plane oriented perpendicular to the field: A' =A cos . l The flux through area A is equal the flux through area A' :

Electric Flux l The flux through the surface of fixed area has the maximum value when the surface is perpendicular to the field: = 0º l The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field: = 90º

The Flux Through a Closed Surface l A closed surface divides space into an inside and an outside region, so that one cannot move from one region to another without crossing the surface l The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface = the number leaving the surface minus the number entering the surface l l The net flux can be positive or negative Normal vector of the surface is outward

Flux Through a Cube l l Uniform electric field E = (E, 0, 0) The flux through the surfaces 3, 4, 5, and 6 equal zero => l The net flux over all six faces is

Gauss’s Law l Describes a general relationship between the net electric flux through a closed surface (a gaussian surface) and the charge enclosed by the surface

Gauss’ Law l Gauss’ Law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge Q inside the surface divided by εo l l εo is the permittivity of free space and equals 8. 85 x 10 -12 C 2/Nm 2 The area in Φ is an imaginary surface, a Gaussian surface, it does not have to coincide with the surface of a physical object

QUICK QUIZ 15. 8 For a surface through which the net flux is zero, the following four statements could be true. Which of the statements must be true? (a) There are no charges inside the surface. (b) The net charge inside the surface is zero. (c) The electric field is zero everywhere on the surface. (d) The number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the number leaving the surface.

QUICK QUIZ 15. 8 ANSWER Statements (b) and (d) are true and follow from Gauss’s law. Statement (a) is not necessarily true because Gauss’s law says that the net flux through any closed surface equals the net charge inside the surface divided by ε 0. For example, a positive and a negative charge could be inside the surface. Statement (c) is not necessarily true. Although the net flux through the surface is zero, the electric field in that region may not be zero.

Electric Field of a Charged Thin Spherical Shell l The calculation of the field outside the shell is identical to that of a point charge l The electric field inside the shell is zero

Electric Field of a Nonconducting Plane Sheet of Charge Use a cylindrical Gaussian surface l The flux through the ends is EA, there is no field through the curved part of the surface l The total charge is Q = σA l l Note, the field is uniform