Philology Dictionaries Linguistic Attitudes and Usage What does

Philology, Dictionaries, Linguistic Attitudes, and Usage What does “The Dictionary” say? Who establishes “correct usage”?

What is Philology? • • Study of old languages Study of old texts Original “literary criticism” Forms the foundation of modern linguistics, literary criticism, literary theory, lexicography, and English literature education as a whole.

Preconditions • Henry VIII’s dissolution of English monasteries in 1538 • Flooded open market with medieval texts, principally in manuscript form • Many destroyed in book making • Many more collected by the first generation of “antiquarians”—early philologists many of them

Early Antiquarians and Libraries • Sir Robert Cotton • James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, collector of Genesis Manuscripts in early 1600 s • Most collections of antiquarians form the basis for early English dictionaries or philological dictionaries • Tradition continued on in the Early English Text Society and the OED

First “Dictionaries” • • • 1480 Caxton’s French Vocabulary 1582 Richard Mulcaster, The Elementarie 1604 Robert Cawdrey, A Table Alphabeticall 1616 John Bullokar, An English Expositor 1623 Henry Cockeram, English Dictionarie 1643 Roger Williams (Rhode Island) Key to the Languages of America • 1656 Thomas Blount, Glossographia • 1658 Edward Phillips (Milton’s Nephew) The New World of English Words (plagiarized Blount, who attacked)

First Dictionaries for Use • 1676 Elisha Coles, English Dictionary included dialect and cant • 1702 John Kersey, A New English Dictionary, first to include everyday words • 1721 Nathaniel Bailey, An Universal Etymological English Dictionary first philological dictionary • 1747 Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language

History of Dictionaries • First comprehensive dictionary in English: Samuel Johnson 1755. • Based on “authorities”-- The Great Authors (Shakespeare, Milton, etc. ) • Noah Webster 1828, An American Dictionary of the English Language • The Oxford English Dictionary, begun 1857

Standard Usage • Described on a Latin model. • Jonathan Swift (1710), Tatler essay on the state of English. • Samuel Johnson (1755), Dictionary • Robert Lowth, Bishop of London, A short introduction to English grammar (1762). • Fowlers Modern Usage and The King’s English in the 20 th century.

The Oxford English Dictionary • Begun in 1857 as the New English Dictionary • Finished in 1928 • Undergoing first full revision since its inception • Based on historical principles • Descriptive in Nature

The American Dictionary Wars • Webster’s Third in 1961 rejected prescriptivism entirely, much to the displeasure of the American public and language “mavens” • American Heritage stepped into the breach and tried to provide a “guide” to educated “middle-class usage”

Arbiters of Correctness • OED relies on textual evidence as its authority • American Heritage relies on a “Usage Panel” consisting of artists, academics, and public leaders: expert language users

Treatment of History • OED third edition has abandoned Indo. European reconstructions • American Heritage dictionary, because of close ties with Harvard University, includes an appendix of Indo-European roots, the only one available in English

Nature of Prescriptivism • Posits a Standard Dialect invested with prestige and (frequently) “moral character” • Good prescriptivists recognize the arbitrary, sociologically based nature of their judgments • Bad prescriptivists insist on absolutes and use prescriptivism to preserve social control

Language Variation • Domain of sociolinguists; formally of dialectologists. • Revived in the 1970 s by Labov and the Milroys. • Labov studied individual variation (register and style shifts). • Milroys studied network variations (register and style shifts among groups).

What are the Standard Dialects? • OED uses Received Pronunciation, effectively educated Southern England, London usage: Oxbridge Usage. • American Heritage uses dialect of Inland North, broadcasting standard as its standard, although it is still submitted to Usage Panel.

How Do We Manage Prescriptivism? • Recognize it when it happens • Recognize its uses • Prescriptivists should create access for speakers of non-standard dialects, not restrict it • Always ask, “Who is setting the standard here? ”