Perception and Personality Perception Attribution and Learning The

Perception and Personality

Perception, Attribution and Learning

The Perception Process ATTENTION • The Perceived • The Perceiver ORGANIZATION • Patterns • Schemas • Scripts PERCEPTION

Comprehending Perception We all have a different store of knowledge. We all therefore interpret the world around us differently. Understanding relies upon the speaker and his audience having the same perception of the required outcome.

Perception is a 'Learned Experience' It is the “awareness” of the external world (or some aspect of it, through one or more of our senses and, the interpretation of these by our mind.

Understanding is achieved by interpreting current experience using past experience as a source of reference, and establishing a context upon which to base this new information. In other words: We are only able to understand today in terms of, and because of, our past experiences. Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'. We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to interpret what our senses are experiencing in the present. These patterns are simultaneously essential and yet out of date.

How do we perceive? We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects. The process of perceiving involves ‘matching’ what our senses are experiencing to one of our ‘models. ’ Perception is an active pattern-matching process. We recognize the world because of our historical store of information. We create our own unique world, our own interpretation of reality.

Patterns to Organize Sensations Figure-Ground We tend to organize sensations into figures and backgrounds. O X O X O X O O O O X X O O O Similarity We tend to group similar items. Do you see alternating rows of O’s and X’s or columns of alternating O’s and X’s? Proximity We tend to group elements that are close together. How many groupings do you see at the left? Closure We tend to fill in the gaps in incomplete stimuli. Do you see a rectangle or four lines? Continuation We tend to organize stimuli into continuous lines or patterns. Do you see two intersecting lines or four lines? Simplicity We tend to reduce stimuli to their simplest shapes or patterns. Do you see an overlapping rectangle and triangle or a nonstandard shaped polygon?

Therefore: Discovering a new perception adds to the database of patterns which already exists in our minds. Once existing experience has been proved inadequate to correctly interpret an image, the brain supplements its store of knowledge with the new experience. Once new experience becomes old experience, it is often difficult to imagine the state of mind prior to gaining this new insight.

Factors that Influence Perception

What is the perception process? A process by which individuals: Organize & interpret their sensory impressions, in order to give meaning to their environment. What one perceive may be substantially different from reality.

Organizational Applications of Perception Employment Interviews Self-fulfilling prophecies of performance Performance evaluations Employee effort Employee loyalty

Managers Should Take Five Steps to Increase Perceptual Accuracy STEP 5 STEP 4 STEP 3 STEP 2 STEP 1 Gather information about behavior & attitudes Check Conclusions Determine if Facts or Assumptions Distinguish among Aspects of Person’s Behavior Eliminate or Reduce Projections

Attribution Judging what people are like and why they do what they do. What is someone really like? What makes a person behave they way s/he does?

One Makes Attributions in Three Major Steps: The Behavior Occurs; the Person Determines if it Was Intentional; if so, the Person Determines its Causes BEHAVIOR OCCURS Observe behavior Was the behavior intentional? What Caused the Intentional behavior? Unintentional Luck! Chance! Personal Cause Situational Cause

Correspondent Inferences Using acts to judge dispositions. We make judgments about what people are like based on what we are able to observe of their behavior. Many causes of behavior. People can conceal some of their traits.

Causal Attribution of Responsibility Answering the question of WHY? Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution 1. Consensus – 2. Consistency – 3. Extent to which other people behave the same. Extent to which behavior is same at other times. Distinctiveness – Extent to which behavior is the same in other contexts.

Internal and External Causes of Behavior Employee Applies for Promotion Employee Receives Promotion Coworker Employee Attributes Success to Personal Situational Characteristics; Employee’s Effort Boss’s Supervision Employees Denied Promotion Employee Attributes Failure to Situational Characteristics; Interviewer’s Attitude Coworker Attributes Failure to Personal Characteristics; Employee’s Personality

Making Judgments = Errors Fundamental Attribution Error Actor-Observer Effect Self-Serving Attribution False Consensus Stereotypes Overcoming Bias in Social Perception External Causes Know your Stereotypes Objective Factors Rash Judgments

The Johari Window

How Little We Remember

Biographical Characteristics Age Gender Marital Status Birth Order Number of Dependents Personality Determinants Heredity Environment Situation

What is Personality? The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others, described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibits. Job fit -- job satisfaction!

Personality Attributes Locus of Control Achievement Orientation Authoritarianism Self-esteem Risk Taking Self-Monitoring Self Efficacy

“Big Five” Dimensions Conscientiousness Extraversion-introversion Agreeableness Emotional Stability Openness to Experience

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Introvert-Extrovert where you derive your energy Sensing-Intuitive where you obtain your information Thinking-Feeling analysis & logic versus pleasing people Judging-Perceiving how you make a decision

Kiersey Temperament Sorter 1. In most situations are you more deliberate than spontaneous than deliberate 2. Is it worse to be a softy hard-nosed 3. Is it better to be just merciful

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations Psychological Focus and Types Preferences Extroversion Focuses on people and things; sociable; outgoing Introversion Focuses on thoughts and concepts; reflective; inwardly directed Strengths Weaknesses (if Overextended) Good at social interaction; enthusiastic and confident; instigates action; open and straightforward Intellectual superficiality; intrusive; lack of respect for others’ privacy; easily distracted Good at personal interaction; stays calm and focused; can concentrate intensely; develops ideas; uses discretion in talking May lose touch with outer world; keeps people at a distance; easily preoccupied

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont. ) Psychological Focus and Types Preferences Strengths Weaknesses (if Overextended) Sensing Facts; data; details; concrete; reality based; present oriented Pragmatic; precise; stable; results oriented; sensible; systematic Lacks long-range outlook; may reject innovative ideas Intuitive Possibilities; hunches; speculations; theoretical ; future oriented Imaginative; conceptulizes easily; creative; intellectually tenacious; idealistic Unrealistic; out of touch; bored by routine; scattered Rational; analytical; assertive; logical; carefully weighs alternatives; firm but fair; explains thoroughly Undervalues feelings; overly analytical; insensitive; critical; judgmental Thinking Analysis; objective; logic; impersonal; justice; systematic inquiry

Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont. ) Psychological Focus and Types Preferences Feeling Judging Strengths Sympathy; Persuasive; empathic; subjective; humane; warm; sensitive; demonpersonal; strative and expressive; compassion; trust; loyal consideration Plan, organize, and Organized; planned; control well; persistent; settled; control one’s decisive; conscientious; life; set goals; struc- reliable tured; routine Perceiving Pending; flexible; Open minded; adaptable; curious; spontaneity; spontaneous; undertentative; let life standing; tolerant; happen; undaunted inquisitive by surprise; open to change Weaknesses (if Overextended) Overly sensitive; moody; can become emotionally overburdened Close minded; inflexible; can jump to conclusions too quickly; intolerant; judgmental Indecisive; procrastinates; unfocused; disorganized; impulsive; may collect data too long before deciding

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others Selective Perception Projection Stereotyping Halo Effect

Emotional Intelligence Definition: Self-control, zeal, persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. The 5 Domains of Emotional Intelligence: Knowing your own emotions Managing your emotions Motivating yourself Empathy Handling Relationships

Knowing Your Emotions The first step, the fundamental competence on which all others are built Self-Awareness: being aware of both our mood and our thoughts about that mood—the building block to the next step. . . Shaking off a bad mood Ways of Attending to Emotions: Self-aware Engulfed Accepting (laissez-faire) Getting to understand your ‘Gut Feelings’ The Emotional Hijacking

Managing Emotions Finding a Balance Venting Emotions Anger (Don’t Suppress it but Don’t Act) Reframe Anger (Paradigm Shifts) 1. Challenge the Triggering Thoughts 2. Understanding Worry

Motivating Yourself “Mundanity of Excellence” Anxiety, Anger & Depression Inhibit Learning Impulse Control & Delayed Gratification (the Marshmallow Experiment) Memory is state-specific Self-Efficacy can be learned, like optimism and hope Flow Self-Forgetfulness Zone between Boredom & Anxiety

Empathy Requires Enough Calm and Receptivity so Subtle Signs of Others can be Received Benefits of Reading Non-verbal Cues: Better Adjusted More Popular More Outgoing More Sensitive

Handling Relationships Key Social Competence: Expressing Own Feelings Display Rules: Minimizing Exaggerating Substituting Emotional Judo

Values Content & Intensity Attributes Lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation. Influence our perceptions. Influence attitudes and behavior. Sources of Value Systems develop over time. Achievement, peace, cooperation, equity etc.

What are Attitudes? Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people, or events. Either favorable or unfavorable. Attitudes Reflect a Person’s Values. Attitudes & Consistency for Individuals: Among their attitudes Between their attitudes and behavior Align attitudes and behavior by changing one or the other.

Three Components of Attitudes Evaluative – how we feel Cognitive – personal knowledge Behavioral – predisposition to act in a certain way.

Job Satisfaction Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Motivators higher level needs satisfiers Hygiene Factors dis-satisfiers lower level needs working conditions

Motivators Worker Satisfaction. Hygiene Factors Worker Dissatisfaction. HYGIENE FACTORS Job Dissatisfaction No Job Dissatisfaction • Pay • Status • Security • Working Conditions • Fringe Benefits • Policies and Administrative Practices • Interpersonal Relations Fig. 4 -3 MOTIVATORS No Job Satisfaction • Meaningful Work • Challenging Work • Recognition for Accomplishments • Feeling of Achievement • Increased Responsibility • Opportunities for Growth and Advancement • The Job Itself

Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction Turnover Absenteeism Job performance

Ability Directly influences level of performance and satisfaction. Need an effective selection process. Need effective promotion and transfer decisions. Need to fine-tune jobs to fit individuals.

Types of Ability