Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage Chapter 11

Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage Chapter 11 – The Mongol Moment, 1200 – 1450

The World of Pastoral Societies �Pastoral societies dependent on horses, camels, goats, sheep, cattle, yaks, and reindeer. �Not in the Americas – no domesticated animals. �Feature of Pastoral Nomads: - generally less productive. - needed large grazing lands. - supported smaller populations. - lived in kinship groups / clans (male line). - more social and gender equality. - mobility (most characteristic feature).

The World of Pastoral Societies (Cont’d) �Deep connection with agricultural neighbors: - sought access to food; manufactured/luxury goods. - adopted Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity; Islam. �Formation of states was difficult but possible: - Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. - unified the tribes (tribal confederations). - almost all men (some women) became warriors. �Success in extracting wealth: raiding, trading; extortion. �Most fundamental contribution: mastering environments unsuitable for agriculture. �After 1000 B. C. E. , horseback riding changed the lives of the nomads.

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History �The Xiongnu Confederacy was an early nomadic empire (3 rd and 2 nd century B. C. E. ). �Mounted warfare made empire possible: -horses of the steppes. �Centralized and hierarchical political system. �Served as a model for Turkic and Mongol Empires. �Extracted tribute from China and other nomads.

Map of the Xiongnu Confederacy

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History (Cont’d) �Greatest impact of nomads was from 500 -1500: -Arabs, Berbers, Turks, and Mongols created largest empires. �Byzantium, Persia, India, and China were all controlled at least for a time by formerly nomadic people. They too were transformed by the experience. �Bedouin (desert-dwelling) Arabs: - camel nomads (500 and 100 B. C. E. ). - effective fighters; shock troops of Islamic expansion. - made trade through Arabia possible.

The Bedouins

Before the Mongols: Pastoralists in History (Cont’d) �A variety of Turkic speaking peoples came out of the steppes of Central Asia and threatened these settled agricultural empires. Soon aspects of Turkic culture influenced China. The Seljuk Turks fought a series of wars with Byzantium, but it was the Ottoman Turks that finally overthrew it in 1453. �In Northwest Africa, the Berber people converted to Islam. After 1039, Ibn Yasin launched a reform campaign. Soon the movement became an expansionist state that moved into Spain and controlled much of present-day Morocco. Like other examples, the Almoravids became urbanized and enjoyed impressive art and architecture.

Map of the Almoravid Empire

The Mongol Empire �Created the largest land empire in history. �Extensive connections of nomads with agricultural neighbors – trade/tribute: -mostly interested in exploiting neighbors. �Mongol population – only 700, 000 people. �They did not bequeath a new language, religion, or civilization to the world. �The Mongols – the last great nomadic state.

From Temujin to Chinggis Khan: The Rise of the Mongol Empire �Temujin (1162 -1227) created the Mongol Empire. �Shifting alliances, betrayals, and military victories: - reputation as a great leader. � 1206 – tribal council recognized him as “Chinggis Khan” (universal ruler). �Wide expansion after unification. �By the time of his death, the mission of Chinggis Khan was to “unify the world. ”

Map of the Mongol Empire

Chinggis Khan

Explaining the Mongol Moment �Well-led, organized, and disciplined army: - conquered tribes were broken up and scattered among units. - all members of a unit were killed if any deserted in battle. - leaders shared the hardships of their men. - elaborate tactics: encirclement, retreat; deception. - horses of the steppes. �Reputation of Brutality: - those who resisted were destroyed.

Mongolian Battles

Explaining the Mongol Moment (Cont’d) �Elaborate census-taking and systematic taxation. �System of relay stations for communication and trade. �Encouraged commerce (Marco Polo). �A centralized bureaucracy developed in Karakorum. �Advisory or lower administrative posts to Chinese and Muslim officials. �Practiced religious toleration.

China and the Mongols �Destructive in northern China, more tolerant in South: - accommodation of the local populace. - landowners guaranteed their estates in return for support. - gave themselves a dynastic title (the Yuan dynasty). - built a new capital, Khanbalik (Beijing). �But the Mongolians were still harsh: - Mongols did not become Chinese. - Mongol law discriminated. - women had a surprisingly good quality of life. �Rebellions forced the Mongols out in 1368. (Ming)

Persia and the Mongols �Very destructive: - many Muslims massacred during mid-13 th century. - agriculture ruined; turned into pasture land. �Mongols in Persia were transformed: - large-scale conversion to Islam. - extensive use of the Persian bureaucracy. - Mongol elites learned some Farsi (Persian). �The Mongols had assimilated when the Mongol dynasty collapsed in the 1330 s.

Russia and the Mongols �Divided Russia was devastated between 1237 and 1240: - destruction of cities. - widespread slaughter. - deportation of skilled workers to other Mongol lands. �Did not occupy Russia (became a vassal): - invaded for tribute, taxes, and slaves. - Moscow was the primary tax collector, which made it powerful. �Russia broke free of Mongolian rule by the 15 th century. �Remember: Russia = Christian/Orthodox Church.

Map of the Mongol Empire

Toward a World Economy �Towards a Global Economy: - produced little, not active traders. - but they promoted trade as a source of tax revenue. - created relatively safe travel across central Asia (Marco Polo made the trip and got home safe). �The Mongol trade circuit connected to other trade networks throughout the rest of Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Middle east, Africa, and Europe, doing much to forge a global economy.

Diplomacy on a Eurasian Scale �When the Mongols made their way into Eastern Europe in a 1241– 1242 campaign, they seemed poised to take the region. Aware of the Mongol threat, European kings and the Pope sent emissaries to negotiate with the Mongols. �European discovery of the outside world: these missions provided the previously isolated Europeans with a wealth of knowledge about the rest of the world. �Mongol linkage of China and Persia: as these two great empires were part of a larger Mongol system, communications between them increased.

Cultural Exchange in the Mongol Realm �Cultural Exchange: - thousands of artisans and craftsmen were forcibly relocated to Karakorum (Mongol Capital). - Chinese technology and art flowed westward. - Europe benefited greatly from these encounters. - scholars argue that Europe’s rise to power has its foundations with the Mongols.

A Eurasian Network

The Plague (Black Death) �Spread across Eurasian trade routes (China origin). �Spread by fleas on rats beginning in 1331. �First biological warfare – Mongols catapulted plague infested bodies into enemy towns. �Plague responsible for breakdown of Mongol Empire and eliminating trade routes: - this is why Europeans sought other routes to Asia. � 1/2 – 2/3 of Europe’s people died: - undermined serfdom. - more equality for women.

The Black Death