Parallelism Why need Parallelism Faster of course l

Parallelism

Why need Parallelism? ¡ Faster, of course l Finish the work earlier ¡ l Same work in less time Do more work ¡ More work in the same time

How to Parallelize an Application? Break down the computational part into small pieces ¡ Assign the small jobs to the parallel running processes ¡ May become complicated when the small piece of jobs depend upon others ¡

Easy Case: Parameter Set ¡ You are running experiments to support your claims and/or better understand a problem l l l Experiment here means an application that you are interesting in the results by running it with different input parameters The pieces of computation are the same program with different parameters Each piece is independent from each other

Parameter Set using Scripts ¡ Your experiment should be able to run in batch l l l Read all parameters (and other inputs) from the command line and files Write all output to a file (whose name you can specify as an input) Use ssh to start the experiment in many machines If there is no common file system, use scp to stage the inputs and collect the results Use nice

Parameter Set via TDG Cluster ¡ ¡ ¡ A simple script that uses ssh to start experiments in many machines will save you a lot of time However, it is possible to do better by carefully considering resource selection, work distribution, input staging, output collection, and the like That is, scheduling can really help in this scenario, using PBS

Hard Case: Dependent Pieces of Computation ¡ If you are running one huge simulation l l the pieces of computation are not independent anymore The processes that form the application will have to communicate these dependencies

Hard Case: Dependent Pieces of Computation Think how to break the application apart in parallel-running processes ¡ Consider carefully if parallelizing your application is really worth ¡ l Parallelize it only if your application really takes too much to run and is going to be used many times

Programming Alternatives ¡ Shared Memory l ¡ Does not scale that well Message Passing l Sockets too low-level ¡ Usually parallel applications are not clientserver ¡ l MPI (Message Passing Interface) is the standard API to do this

Steps for Writing Parallel Program ¡ ¡ If you are starting with an existing serial program, debug the serial code completely Identify which parts of the program can be executed concurrently: l l l ¡ Requires a thorough understanding of the algorithm Exploit any parallelism which may exist May require restructuring of the program and/or algorithm. May require an entirely new algorithm. Decompose the program: l l l Functional Parallelism Data Parallelism Combination of both

Steps for Writing Parallel Program ¡ Code development l l ¡ ¡ Code may be influenced/determined by machine architecture Choose a programming paradigm Determine communication Add code to accomplish process control and communications Compile, Test, Debug Optimization l l l Measure Performance Locate Problem Areas Improve them

Program Decomposition ¡ There are three methods for decomposing a problem into smaller processes to be performed in parallel: Functional Decomposition, Domain Decomposition, or a combination of both

Functional Decomposition (Functional Parallelism) Decomposing the problem into different processes which can be distributed to multiple processors for simultaneous execution ¡ Good to use when there is not static structure or fixed determination of number of calculations to be performed ¡

Functional Decomposition (Functional Parallelism) The Problem Machine 1 Machine 2 Machine 3 Machine 4

Domain Decomposition (Data Parallelism) ¡ ¡ Partitioning the problem's data domain and distributing portions to multiple processors for simultaneous execution Good to use for problems where: l l l data is static (factoring and solving large matrix or finite difference calculations) dynamic data structure tied to single entity where entity can be subset (large multi-body problems) domain is fixed but computation within various regions of the domain is dynamic (fluid vortices models)

Domain Decomposition (Data Parallelism) The Problem Machine 1 Machine 2 Machine 3 Machine 4

Other Decomposition Methods – One Dimensional Data Distribution ¡ ¡ Block Distribution Cyclic Distribution

Other Decomposition Methods – Two Dimensional Data Distribution ¡ Block Distribution

Other Decomposition Methods – Two Dimensional Data Distribution ¡ Block Cyclic Distribution

Other Decomposition Methods – Two Dimensional Data Distribution ¡ Cyclic Block Distribution

Programming ¡ ¡ ¡ Understanding the inter-processor communications of your program is essential Message Passing communication is programmed explicitly. The programmer must understand code the communication Data Parallel compilers and run-time systems do all communications behind the scenes. The programmer need not understand the underlying communications. On the other hand to get good performance from your code you should write your algorithm with the best communication possible

Considerations: Amdahl's Law ¡ ¡ It states that potential program speedup is defined by the fraction of code (f) which can be parallelized If none of the code can be parallelized, f = 0 and the speedup = 1 (no speedup). If all of the code is parallelized, f = 1 and the speedup is infinite (in theory)

Considerations: Amdahl's Law ¡ ¡ Introducing the number of processors performing the parallel fraction of work, the relationship can be modeled by the equation where: P: parallel fraction N: number of processors S: serial fraction

Considerations: Amdahl's Law ¡ It is obvious that there are limits to the scalability of parallelism. For example, at P =. 50, . 90 and. 99 (50%, 90% and 99% of the code is parallelizable) Speedup N P=0. 50 P=0. 99 10 1. 82 5. 26 9. 17 100 1. 98 9. 17 50. 25 1000 1. 998 9. 91 90. 99 10000 1. 9998 9. 991 99. 02

Considerations: Amdahl's Law ¡ Problems which increase the percentage of parallel time with their size are more "scalable" than problems with a fixed percentage of parallel time

Considerations: Load Balancing ¡ ¡ ¡ Load balancing refers to the ways to distribute processes so as to insure the most time efficient parallel execution If processes are not distributed in a balanced way, some processes are waiting while other processes are idle Performance can be increased if work can be more evenly distributed l ¡ For example, if there are many processes of varying sizes, it may be more efficient to maintain a process pool and distribute to processors as each finishes Consider a heterogeneous environment where there are machines of widely varying power and user load versus a homogeneous environment with identical processors running one job per processor

Considerations: Granularity ¡ ¡ In order to coordinate between different processors working on the same problem, some form of communication between them is required The ratio between computation and communication is known as granularity The most efficient granularity is dependent on the algorithm and the hardware environment in which it runs In most cases overhead associated with communications and synchronization is high relative to execution speed so it is advantageous to have coarse granularity

Fine-grain Parallelism ¡ ¡ ¡ All processes execute a small number of instructions between communication cycles Facilitates load balancing Low computation to communication ratio Implies high communication overhead and less opportunity for performance enhancement If granularity is too fine it is possible that the overhead required for communications and synchronization between processes takes longer than the computation

Fine-grain Parallelism Computation Computation Communication Communication Computation … … …

Coarse-grain Parallelism ¡ ¡ Typified by long computations consisting of large numbers of instructions between communication synchronization points High computation to communication ratio Implies more opportunity for performance increase Harder to load balance efficiently l l Imagine that the computation work load is a 10 kg. of material: ¡ Sand = fine-grain ¡ Cinder blocks = coarse grain Which is easier to distribute?

Coarse-grain Parallelism Computation Computation Communication Communication … … …

Considerations: Data Dependency ¡ ¡ Data dependency exists when there is multiple use of the same storage location Types of data dependencies l l l Flow Dependent: Process 2 uses a variable computed by Process 1 must store/send the variable before Process 2 fetches Output Dependent: Process 1 and Process 2 both compute the same variable and Process 2's value must be stored/sent after Process 1's Control Dependent: Process 2's execution depends upon a conditional statement in Process 1 must complete before a decision can be made about executing Process 2

Considerations: Data Dependency ¡ How to handle data dependencies? l Distributed memory ¡ l Communicate required data at synchronization points Shared memory ¡ Synchronize read/write operations between processes

Considerations: Communication Patterns and Bandwidth ¡ For some problems, increasing the number of processors will: l l ¡ ¡ Decrease the execution time attributable to computation But also, increase the execution time attributable to communication Communication patterns also affect the computation to communication ratio. For example, gather-scatter communications between a single processor and N other processors will be impacted more by an increase in latency than N processors communicating only with nearest neighbors l They have to wait until all have reached a certain point

Considerations: I/O Operation ¡ ¡ I/O operations are generally regarded as inhibitors to parallelism In an environment where all processors see the same file space, write operations will result in file overwriting Read operations will be affected by the fileserver's ability to handle multiple read requests at the same time I/O which must be conducted over the network (non-local) can cause severe bottlenecks

Considerations: I/O Operation ¡ Some alternatives: l l l Reduce overall I/O as much as possible Confine I/O to specific serial portions of the job For example, process 0 could read an input file and then communicate required data to other processes. Likewise, process 1 could perform write operation after receiving required data from all other processes. Create unique filenames for each processes' input/output file(s) For distributed memory systems with shared file space, perform I/O in local, non-shared file space For example, each processor may have /tmp filespace which can used. This is usually much more efficient than performing I/O over the network to one's home directory

Considerations: Fault Tolerance and Restarting ¡ In parallel programming, it is usually the programmer's responsibility to handle events such as: l l machine failures task failures checkpoint restarting

Considerations: Deadlock ¡ ¡ Deadlock describes a condition where two or more processes are waiting for an event or communication from one of the other processes. The simplest example is demonstrated by two processes which are both programmed to read/receive from the other before writing/sending. Process 1 Process 2 X=1 Recv (Process 2, Y) Send (Process 2, X) Z=X+Y … Y = 10 Recv (Process 1, X) Send (Process 1, Y) Z=X+Y …

Considerations: Debugging ¡ ¡ Debugging parallel programs is significantly more of a challenge than debugging serial programs Debug the program as soon as the development start Use a modular approach to program development Pay as close attention to communication details as to computation details

Essentials of Loop Parallelism ¡ ¡ Problems that has a loop construct forms the main computational component of the code. Loops are a main target for parallelizing and vectorizing code. A program often spends much of its time in loops. When it can be done, parallelizing these sections of code can have dramatic benefits. A step-wise refinement procedure for developing the parallel algorithms will be employed. An initial solution for each problem will be presented and improved by considering performance issues

Essentials of Loop Parallelism ¡ Pseudo-code will be used to describe the solutions. The solutions will address the following issues: l l l ¡ identification of parallelism program decomposition load balancing (static vs. dynamic) task granularity in the case of dynamic load balancing communication patterns - overlapping communication and computation Note the difference in approaches between message passing and data parallel programming. Message passing explicitly parallelizes the loops where data parallel replaces loops by working on entire arrays in parallel

Example: Calculation (Serial) ¡ Problem is: l l ¡ ¡ Computationally intensive Minimal communication The value of PI can be calculated in a number of ways, many of which are easily parallelized Consider the following method of approximating PI l l l Inscribe a circle in a square Randomly generate points in the square Determine the number of points in the square that are also in the circle Let r be the number of points in the circle divided by the number of points in the square PI ~ 4 r Note that the more points generated, the better the approximation

Example: Calculation (Serial) 2 r

Example: Calculation (Serial) ¡ Serial pseudo code for this procedure: l l l npoints = 10000 circle_count = 0 do j = 1, npoints ¡ ¡ generate 2 random numbers between 0 and 1 xcoordinate = random 1 ycoordinate = random 2 if (xcoordinate, ycoordinate) inside circle l l l ¡ then circle_count = circle_count + 1 end do PI = 4. 0*circle_count/npoints Note that most of the time in running this program would be spent executing the loop

Example: Calculation (Parallel) ¡ ¡ Parallel strategy: break the loop into portions which can be executed by the processors. For the task of approximating PI: l l l each processor executes its portion of the loop a number of times each processor can do its work without requiring any information from the other processors (there are no data dependencies). This situation is known as Embarrassingly Parallel Use SPMD (Single Processor/Multiple Data) Model – One process acts as master and collects the results

Example: Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Message passing pseudo code: l npoints = 10000 circle_count = 0 p = number of processors num = npoints/p l find out if I am master or worker l do j = 1, num l l l ¡ ¡ ¡ generate 2 random numbers between 0 and 1 xcoordinate = random 1; ycoordinate = random 2 if (xcoordinate, ycoordinate) inside circle l then circle_count = circle_count + 1 l end do l if I am master ¡ ¡ l else if I am worker ¡ l receive from workers their circle_counts compute PI (use master and workers calculations) send to master circle_count endif

Example: Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Data parallel solution: l l The data parallel solutions processes entire arrays at the same time. No looping is used. Arrays automatically distributed to processors. All message passing is done behind the scenes. In data parallel, one node, a sort of master, usually holds all scalar values. The SUM function does a reduction and leaves the value in a scalar variable. A temporary array, COUNTER, with the same size as RANDOM is created for the sum operation

Example: Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Data parallel pseudo code: l fill RANDOM with 2 random numbers between 0 and 1 l where (the values of RANDOM are inside the circle) ¡ l COUNTER = 1 else where ¡ COUNTER = 0 l end where l circle_count = sum (COUNTER) PI = 4. 0*circle_count/npoints l

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Serial) ¡ ¡ ¡ This example shows calculations on array elements that require very little communication. Elements of 2 -dimensional array are calculated. The calculation of elements is independent of one another - leads to embarrassingly parallel situation. The problem should be computation intensive. Serial code could be of the form: l do j = 1, n ¡ do i = 1, n l ¡ a(i, j) = fcn(i, j) end do The serial program calculates one element at a time in the specified order

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Message Passing l l Arrays are distributed so that each processor owns a portion of an array. Independent calculation of array elements insures no communication amongst processors is needed. Distribution scheme is chosen by other criteria, e. g. unit stride through arrays. Desirable to have unit stride through arrays, then the choice of a distribution scheme depends on the programming language. ¡ ¡ l l Fortran: block cyclic distribution C: cyclic block distribution After the array is distributed, each processor executes the portion of the loop corresponding to the data it owns. Notice only the loop variables are different from the serial solution

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Parallel) l For example, with Fortran and a block cyclic distribution: ¡ do j = mystart, myend l l ¡ ¡ do i = 1, n ¡ a(i, j) = fcn(i, j) end do Message Passing Solution: l l With Fortran storage scheme, perform block cyclic distribution of array. Implement as SPMD model. Master process initializes array, sends info to worker processes and receives results. Worker process receives info, performs its share of computation and sends results to master.

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Message Passing Pseudo code: l l find out if I am master or worker if I am master ¡ ¡ l initialize the array send each worker info on part of array it owns send each worker its portion of initial array receive from each worker results else if I am worker ¡ ¡ receive from master info on part of array I own receive from master my portion of initial array # calculate my portion of array do j = my first column, my last column l l ¡ ¡ l do i = 1, n ¡ a(i, j) = fcn(i, j) end do send master results endif

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Parallel) ¡ Data Parallel l l A trivial problem for a data parallel language. Data parallel languages often have compiler directives to do data distribution. Loops are replaced by a "for all elements" construct which performs the operation in parallel. Good example of ease in programming versus message passing. Pseudo code solution: ¡ DISTRIBUTE a (block, cyclic) ¡ for all elements (i, j) l a(i, j) = fcn (i, j)

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Dynamic Load Balancing) ¡ We've looked at problems that are static load balanced. l l ¡ ¡ ¡ each processor has fixed amount of work to do may be significant idle time for faster or more lightly loaded processors. Usually is not a major concern with dedicated usage. i. e. load leveler. If you have a load balance problem, you can use a “dynamic load balancing" scheme. This solution only available in message passing. Two processes are employed: l Master Process: ¡ ¡ ¡ l Worker Process: repeatedly does the following ¡ ¡ ¡ holds pool of tasks for worker processes to do sends worker a task when requested collects results from workers gets task from master process performs computation sends results to master Worker processes do not know before runtime which portion of array they will handle or how many tasks they will perform. The fastest process will get more tasks to do.

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Dynamic Load Balancing) ¡ Solution: l l ¡ Calculate an array element Worker process gets task from master, performs work, sends results to master, and gets next task Pseudo code solution: l l find out if I am master or worker if I am master ¡ do until no more jobs l l ¡ ¡ l end do tell workers no more jobs else if I am worker ¡ do until no more jobs l l l ¡ l send to worker next job receive results from worker receive from master next job calculate array element: a(i, j) = fcn(i, j) send results to master end do endif

Example: Array Elements Calculation (Dynamic Load Balancing) ¡ ¡ ¡ Static load balancing can result in significant idle time for faster processors. Dynamic load balancing offers a potential solution - the faster processors do more work. In the dynamic load balancing solution, the workers calculated array elements, resulting in: l l l ¡ optimal load balancing: all processors complete work at the same time fine granularity: small unit of computation, master and worker communicate after every element fine granularity may cause very high communications cost Alternate Parallel Solution: l l l give processors more work - columns or rows rather than elements more computation and less communication results in larger granularity reduced communication may improve performance

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Serial) ¡ ¡ ¡ ¡ Most problems in parallel computing require communication among the processors. Common problem requires communication with "neighbor" processor. The heat equation describes the temperature change over time, given initial temperature distribution and boundary conditions. A finite differencing scheme is employed to solve the heat equation numerically on a square region. The initial temperature is zero on the boundaries and high in the middle. The boundary temperature is held at zero. For the fully explicit problem, a time stepping algorithm is used. The elements of a 2 -dimensional array represent the temperature at points on the square

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Serial)

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Serial) U x, y+1 U x-1, y U x, y-1 U x+1, y

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Serial) ¡ ¡ ¡ The calculation of an element is dependent on neighbor element values. A serial program would contain code like do iy = 2, ny - 1 l do ix = 2, nx - 1 ¡ u 2(ix, iy) = l l ¡ u 1(ix, iy) + cx * (u 1(ix+1, iy) + u 1(ix-1, iy) - 2. *u 1(ix, iy)) + cy * (u 1(ix, iy+1) + u 1(ix, iy-1) - 2. *u 1(ix, iy)) end do

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Parallel) ¡ ¡ Arrays are distributed so that each processor owns a portion of the arrays. Determine data dependencies l l ¡ interior elements belonging to a processor are independent of other processors' border elements are dependent upon a neighbor processor's data, communication is required. Message Passing l l l First Parallel Solution: Fortran storage scheme, block cyclic distribution Implement as SPMD model Master process sends initial info to workers, checks for convergence and collects results Worker process calculates solution, communicating as necessary with neighbor processes

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Parallel) interior elements border elements

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Parallel) ¡ First Pseudo code solution: l l find out if I am master or worker if I am master ¡ ¡ ¡ initialize array send each worker starting info do until all workers have converged l l ¡ ¡ l end do receive results from each worker else if I am worker ¡ ¡ receive from master starting info do until all workers have converged l l l l ¡ ¡ l gather from all workers convergence data broadcast to all workers convergence signal update time send neighbors my border info receive from neighbors their border info update my portion of solution array determine if my solution has converged send master convergence data receive from master convergence signal end do send master results endif

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Parallel) ¡ Data Parallel l Loops are not used. The entire array is processed in parallel. The distribute statements layout the data in parallel. A SHIFT is used to increment or decrement an array element. ¡ ¡ ¡ DISTRIBUTE u 1 (block, cyclic) DISTRIBUTE u 2 (block, cyclic) u 2 = u 1 + cx * (SHIFT (u 1, 1, dim 1) + SHIFT (u 1, -1, dim 1) 2. *u 1) + cy * (SHIFT (u 1, 1, dim 2) + SHIFT (u 1, -1, dim 2) 2. *u 1)

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Overlapping Communication and Computation) ¡ ¡ ¡ Previous examples used blocking communications, which waits for the communication process to complete. Computing times can often be reduced by using non-blocking communication. Work can be performed while communication is in progress. In the heat equation problem, neighbor processes communicated border data, then each process updated its portion of the array. Each process could update the interior of its part of the solution array while the communication of border data is occurring, and update its border after communication has completed.

Example: Simple Heat Equation (Overlapping Communication and Computation) l Second Pseudo code: ¡ ¡ find out if I am master or worker if I am master l l l ¡ else if I am worker l l ¡ initialize array send each worker starting info do until solution converged ¡ gather from all workers convergence data ¡ broadcast to all workers convergence signal end do receive results from each worker endif receive from master starting info do until solution converged ¡ update time ¡ non-blocking send neighbors my border info ¡ non-blocking receive neighbors border info ¡ update interior of my portion of solution array ¡ wait for non-blocking communication complete ¡ update border of my portion of solution array ¡ determine if my solution has converged ¡ send master convergence data ¡ receive from master convergence signal end do send master results

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