PANAFRICANISM A black response to white oppression Background

PAN-AFRICANISM A black response to white oppression

Background • The effects of slavery and colonialism made African people want to establish a new sense of identity • In North America and the Caribbean the concept of Pan-Africanism emerged in the early 20 th century – Uniting Africans in a common cause – Political and psychological liberation – Included a new appreciation for Africa’s past/heritage

Locating pan-Africanism from the African Diaspora

What were the challenges? q PROBLEM FOR AFRICAN-AMERICANS POST-RECONSTRUCTION How to obtain first class citizenship? q SOLUTION (1) Physical violence to force concession by whites, or (2) Democratic means to change conditions; ↓ § Development to become indispensible leading to social and political rights (Washington), versus § Struggle for civil rights e. g. through the franchise, where economic and social rights would follow (du Bois), or African-Americans return to Africa (Garvey)

EARLY PAN-AFRICANISM • It is a range of political and cultural ideas linking people of African heritage • It grew out of black people’s desire to rediscover their heritage and recover their identity as African people • Included some ideas on the political unification of Africa and cultural unification of Africans • Wanted to free Africans from slavery and colonisation • Wanted to promote pride in black achievement • Officially used for the first time in 1900 at conference in London

Origin of Pan-Africanism? • In the Americas • Sparked by the effects of the American Civil War (1860 s) where, after slavery was abolished in North America, black people still had no equal rights • American and Caribbean writers began working on the concept of Pan-Africanism in the late 19 th century – W. E. B. du Bois (USA) – Marcus Garvey (Jamaica)

Booker T Washington (born 1856) ‘Gradualist economic strategy’ Educated through the Tuskegee Institute, Alabama Ø Grounded in the doctrine of: § economic advancement § acceptance of disenfranchisement § conciliation with white south

1895, ‘Atlanta Compromise’ speech Used the hand / separate fingers analogy “…In all things purely social we can be as separate as the five fingers, and yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress. ”

Called on § white America to provide jobs and industrialagricultural education In exchange for which blacks ▪ would give up demands for social equality and civil rights ▪ would earn respectability through usefulness (prove all blacks are not “liars and chicken thieves”) Ø Attracted substantial financial contributions Ø ‘White’ America profiled him as the ‘voice’ of ‘African. Americans’ Ø 1901, published ‘Up From Slavery’ 1915, died

WEB Du Bois (born 1868) ‘Gradualist political strategy’ In 1895, he was a supporter of Washington He referred to the Atlanta Compromise as "a word fitly spoken" ▪ accepted franchise restrictions based on education and property qualifications - not race 1901 – 1903 Opposition to Washington due to: ▪ importance of liberal arts education versus industrial / agricultural ▪ Washington's dictatorial control, stifling of criticism

1903, published collection of essays “a forward movement to oppose part of the work of their greatest leader“ In ‘The Souls of Black Folk’ “…After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world, -a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one-s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his two-ness, -an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. “…The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife, -this longing to attain selfconscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. IN this merging he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He would not Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of white Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American, without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of Opportunity closed roughly in his face. ” ‘Of our Spiritual Strivings’, in The Souls of Black Folk (1903) This is a revision of ‘Strivings of the Negro People’, published in the Atlantic Monthly, Aug 1897

Ø See black life through black eyes; Ø There is no longer the insistence on defining the term ‘race’. In its place is a nuanced consideration of the impact of prejudice in situations of social interaction on black consciousness; Ø The ‘double-life’ of African-Americans is § both a deprivation, § and a gift § where ‘alienation’ has a revolutionary potential

This is what Vilashini Cooppan calls Du Bois’s “dialectical formalism”, where the pattern is thesis and anti-thesis. Du Bois argued the consequence of Washington was the: ▪ legal creation of a distinct status of civil inferiority ▪ a steady withdrawal of aid from institutions of learning ▪ and an acceptance of alleged inferiority of African-Americans

Du Bois demanded: ▪ right to vote, civic equality, education according to ability Through: ▪ black leadership, the 'talented tenth', from college educated elite • He wrote over 20 books on black history and culture • First African American to receive Ph. D from Harvard § 1905 - 1910 established the 'Niagra Movement' = northern 'talented tenth', but it lacked financial support § 1909, formed National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP)

Organiser of Pan-African Conferences Ø He played a leading role in the 1 st Pan-African Conference in London in 1900 and drafted a letter, entitled “Address to the Nations of the World”, to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism, to grant colonies in Africa and the West-Indies the right to self-government, and demanded political and other rights for African Americans Ø Organised P-A conferences in Europe between WWI and WWII Ø In Paris in 1919, a P-A conference was held which coincided with the Paris Peace Conference (when Treaty of Versailles was signed) – Du Bois believed that Wilson’s concept of “self-determination” should apply to Africa as well

Du Bois and Garvey

MARCUS GARVEY, born 1887 Ø 1887, Born in Jamaica – father made a fortune but died poor, mother was a sober and conscientious Christian ▪ Both neighbours were white, played with black and white kids “never dreamed of a race feeling. . . ” ▪ At 14, white girl ‘play mate’ send to England – no contact as “I was a nigger…some difference in humanity…there were different races…each having its own separate and distinct social life”…introduction to term ‘negro’

Ø As emerging adults, boys “took different courses in life…did not know or remember me anymore” ▪ At 18 worked as a manager in printing + entered public life and “saw injustice done to my race because it was black” • Traveled to South and Central America, parts of the West Indies, Europe – inspired by writings of Booker T Washington Problem: Where is; “…the black man’s Govt, King and his kingdom, President, country, army etc…? I will help to make them” Alternative: “new world of black men, nation of sturdy men making their impression upon civilization, new light to dawn upon the human race”

Ø Started the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1914, when back in Jamaica – Branches in USA, Central and South America, Caribbean, England, West – and South Africa – Published weekly newspaper called Negro World – Black Star Line shipping company – Established “Liberty Halls” – gave social services to black people and supported black businesses Moved to Harlem (NY) in 1916 Ø Believed in African economic and political independence Ø “Africa for the Africans” and be proud of being black Ø Wanted black people to return to Africa to escape racism and construct united Africa

Ø UNIA convention in NY in 1920 – 25 000 people attended – wrote the “Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World” and Anthem: “Universal Ethiopian Anthem” – Colours of Africa were adopted: red, black, green – Wanted black kids in USA to be taught African history Ø UNIA had 2 million members from 40 countries at its height Ø Garveyism popular in SA after WWII, especially slogans such as “Africa for the Africans” – Inspired founding of the Pan-Africanist Congress (Robert Sobukwe-1959) and the Black Consciousness Movement (Steve Biko-1968)

FUTURE SCENARIO & OBJECTIVES? ▪ “death struggle for the survival of different races” ▪ cities will become “overcrowded with vast surplus populations” where the “weaker and unprepared group is bound to go under” therefore ▪ fighting for the “founding of a negro nation in Africa” – “each race will have a separate existence and civilization”

Négritude (“negro-ness”) • This was a literary movement developed by French speaking writers in Caribbean (Haiti), Europe (France) and West Africa (French colonies) • It attempted to create interest and pride in black culture and ancient history of Africa • Also accompanied by Marxist ideology • Léopold Senghor (poet from Senegal) – He was inspired by African American jazz musicians in Paris in 1920 s – this sparked an interest in African history, art, literature

The Harlem Renaissance Ø Harlem was a working class area in NY • Overcrowded, poor, unemployment high • Became vibrant with black culture in 1920 s (comparable to Sophiatown and Soweto in SA) • artists, musicians, poets, writers drew on African and African American heritage to create a cultural expression of Pan-Africanism

The Cotton Club in Harlem, famous for its Jazz music

The Apollo theatre in Harlem

Rastafarianism and P-A Garvey made a prediction: “Look to Africa when a Black king shall be crowned, for the day of deliverance is near. ” • In 1930, Ras Tafari was crowned as Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (1930 -1974) – irony: he was a Christian and never a Rastafarian • Some saw him as a god • Rastafarianism became a religion and cultural movement of black nationalism (reasonings, binghi, dreadlocks) • Popular in slums of Kingston, Jamaica where a lot a descendents of African slaves lived • Believed black people would only be free if they returned to Africa • Reggae music became a popular vehicle of Rastafarianism After WWII Pan-Africanism became a political movement for independence in Africa

THE ROLE OF PAN-AFRICANISM IN THE DE-COLONISATION OF AFRICA Ø After WWII Pan-Africanism became linked with African nationalism and the struggle for independence Ø But there were other factors that also played a role in the de-colonisation process in Africa in the 1950 s and 1960 s

The Pan-African Conference (1945) Manchester • Leading Pan-Africanists from SA, Kenya, Gold Coast, West Indies planned the conference • Wanted independence of Africa • Wanted union of African states • Supported the use of strikes, boycotts, civil disobedience to force European powers to grant independence

Impact of WWII on Africa • • • Allied slogan was: “fight to make world safe for democracy” West Africa was source of supplies Urbanisation increased as wartime industries flourished This led to growth in politically conscious urban working class Africans served in Allied armies – Liberation of Ethiopia from Italians – Against Japanese in Burma – Against Italians and Germans in N-Africa So many wanted extension of liberation to Africa Ex-soldiers returned home without work and resented lack of support from colonial authorities They were filled with concepts of freedom and wanted the same for Africa Many stayed overseas and were educated at British, French and American universities – Nkrumah, Kenyatta, Senghor

Expectations created by the war • Roosevelt and Churchill drew up Atlantic Charter during War • Included vision of post-war world – Right of all people to choose the government under which they live – Some Africans wondered if this pertained to Africa too • The very attack on Nazi Germany for its race policies made people around the world realise that colonialism was based on similar concepts of race superiority • After war: United Nations established – Committed to human rights and self-determination

The impact of the War on the colonial powers • Japanese success over Allies crushed concept of white supremacy • Britain and France lost political and economic strength after war and no longer really committed to have colonies

Asian nationalism • Nationalist movements emerged in Dutch East Indies and French Indochina and strengthened in India after war • Eventually Britain, Netherlands and France (after brutal wars) granted their colonies independence • This served as inspiration for Africa

Cold War • Both USA and USSR wanted to gain support of African nations during Cold War and thus criticised colonialism • Also supplied aid and support for liberation movements in Africa

Kwame Nkrumah Born 19 September, 1909 (Gold Coast, West Africa) Ø Trained as a teacher in Accra, and taught for a few years Ø 1935 - 45 he studied in the USA (Theology, Sociology, Education, Philosophy and Political Science) - tried to develop a solution to the "colonial question" ". . . I read Hegel, Karl Marx, Engels, Lenin and Mazzini. The writings of these activists did much to influence me in my revolutionary ideas and activities and Karl Marx and Lenin particularly impressed me as I felt sure that their philosophy was capable of solving these problems. But I think that of all the literature that I studied, the book that did more than any other to fire my enthusiasm was Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey published in 1923. "

Ø Joined a group of African students and helped them build a "continent-wide movement called the African Students Association of America and Canada", of which he was elected President. " Ø In 1945, he moved to England served as the Secretary of the West African National Secretariat and as Co-Secretary, with George Padmore, on the Fifth Pan-African Congress. Ø He launched a secret organisation known as the 'Circle', which was dedicated to the "liberation of Africa and the establishment of a Union of Socialist African Republics".

Ø In 1947, Nkrumah returned to Ghana to become the General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) ▪ an elite organization of African professionals, ▪ and their approach to independence was too slow for Nkrumah's taste. Ø He split from the UGCC with its youth wing, the Committee on Youth Organization (CYO) and formed the Convention People's Party (CPP). Ø The slogan of the CPP was, "Self-Government Now!" versus the moderate call of the UGCC for "Self. Government in the Shortest Possible Time. "

ØNkrumah launched what he referred to as, the Positive Action Campaign. The main points of this campaign were: ▪ "Legitimate political agitation; ▪ Newspaper and educational campaigns and ▪ as a last resort, the constitutional application of strikes, boycotts, and noncooperation based on the principles of absolute non-violence“.

". . . In those days, when we talked of tactics of nonviolence we meant the kind of tactics employed by Ghandi in India. `Violence' was to pick up the gun. `Non-violence' implied practically any other means short of actually picking up the gun. In recent times, revolutionaries refer to `violence' in rather different terms, though the issues are still much the same. They see it more in general terms, as any kind of exploitation or oppression. For example, when a peasant in Africa or elsewhere dies of starvation in a world of plenty, they call it violence…. .

“. . . It is violence when a whole class of people suffer indignity, deprivation and exploitation at the hands of a selfish, privileged minority Reactionary violence must be met with revolutionary violence. The latter is employed every time the oppressed take action to end their oppression, whether or not they actually resort to armed struggle. Looked at in these terms, our campaign of Positive Action was far from non-violent. But at the time when it was carried out, it was considered a peaceful form of revolutionary struggle. “ Kwame Nkrumah

See Bio of Kwame Nkrumah

Ø Ghana achieved political independence from Britain on 6 March, 1957. Ø When Ghana became independent, Nkrumah made a statement that was widely applauded by African nationalists: "our independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of the African continent. "

Ø Nkrumah promoted: – African unity, non-alignment in context of Cold War, independence, development Ø Accra became centre for liberation and Pan-Africanism Ø Nkrumah hosted two conferences in Accra in 1958: – The Conference of Independent African States: • Established contact between Arab states in N-Africa and sub-Saharan Africa • Only eight states independent by then: Ghana, Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Liberia, Ethiopia – All-African People’s Conference: • Focussed on independence struggle in African colonies • Wanted African union • More countries/nationalist groups present

Ø He established secret military training camps for liberation movements and had hoped, with the support of the United Nations, to provide official military support for the Patrice Lumumba government against US inspired subterfuge – without success. Ø The formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 can be seen as a successful deflection, by the West, of Nkrumah's efforts to solidly unite the African continent into a powerful political union.

1965 he released his book Neocolonialism: The last stage of imperialism. "In this book I exposed the economic stranglehold exercised by foreign monopolistic complexes such as the Anglo-American Corporation, and illustrated the ways in which this financial grip perpetuated the paradox of Africa: poverty in the midst of plenty. The American Government sent me a note of protest, and promptly refused Ghana $35 million of `aid'. "

Ø On February 24, 1966, sponsored by the USA, Ghanaian opposition forces overthrew Nkrumah in a military coup de'tat. Ø This event took place while Nkrumah was on his way to Vietnam, via China, to assist in bringing an end to the war there. President Johnson sent personal assurance that no bombs would be dropped on Vietnam during Nkrumah's visit. The involvement of the CIA in this activity has been well documented by former CIA agent John Stockwell in his book, In Search of Enemies. Ø Nkrumah relocated his base of operation to Guinea, Conakry where he became the co. President with Ahmed Sekou Toure. He died in 1972

OAU • African unity culminated in formation of OAU in 1963 in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) – 32 members • SA became its 53 rd member in 1994 • By end of the 1960 s most African countries were independent • Only SA, SWA, Rhodesia, Mozambique, Angola still ruled by white minorities • Disbanded in 2002, and replaced by the African Union (AU)

Pan-Africanism & South Africa • Anton Muziwakhe Lembede • Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe » See additional notes