Organizational Behaviour Understanding and Managing Life at Work
Organizational Behaviour: Understanding and Managing Life at Work Eleventh Edition Chapter 7 Groups and Teamwork Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -1
Learning Objectives (1 of 2) LO 7. 1 Discuss group development. LO 7. 2 Explain how group size and member diversity influence what occurs in groups. LO 7. 3 Review how norms, roles, and status affect social interaction. LO 7. 4 Discuss the causes and consequences of group cohesiveness. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -2
Learning Objectives (2 of 2) LO 7. 5 Explain the dynamics of social loafing. LO 7. 6 Discuss how to design and support selfmanaged teams. LO 7. 7 Explain the logic behind cross-functional teams, and describe how they can operate effectively. LO 7. 8 Understand virtual teams and what makes them effective. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -3
What Is a Group? (1 of 2) • A group consists of two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal. • Interaction is the most basic aspect of a group. • Interdependence means that group members rely to some degree on each other to accomplish goals. • Why is group membership important? Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -4
What Is a Group? (2 of 2) • Group membership is important because: – Groups exert influence on us. – Groups provide a context in which we are able to exert influence on others. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -5
Group Development • Groups are complex social devices. • They require a fair amount of negotiation and trialand-error before individual members begin to function as a true group. • How do groups develop? Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -6
Typical Stages of Group Development (1 of 3) • Groups develop through a series of stages over time. • Each stage presents the members with a series of challenges they must master to achieve the next stage. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -7
Stages of Group Development Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -8
Group Structure and Its Consequences • Group structure refers to the characteristics of the stable social organization of a group - the way a group is “put together. ” • The most basic structural characteristics along which groups vary are size and member diversity. • Other structural characteristics are group norms, roles, status, and cohesiveness. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 -9
Group Size • The smallest possible group consists of two people, such as a manager and a particular employee. • In practice, most work groups, including task forces and committees, usually have between 3 and 20 members. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 10
Group Size and Satisfaction (1 of 2) • Members of larger groups consistently report less satisfaction with group membership than those in smaller groups. • The chance to work on and develop friendships decrease as size increases. • Larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 11
Group Size and Satisfaction (2 of 2) • As size increases, the time available for verbal participation by each member decreases. • Many people are inhibited about participating in larger groups. • In large groups, individual members identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 12
Group Size and Performance (1 of 2) • Do large groups perform tasks better than small groups? • The relationship between group size and performance depends on the task the group needs to accomplish and on how we define good performance. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 13
Group Size and Performance (2 of 2) • Three types of group tasks: – Additive tasks – Disjunctive tasks – Conjunctive tasks Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 14
Additive Tasks • Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members (e. g. , building a house). • For additive tasks, the potential performance of the group increases with group size. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 15
Disjunctive Tasks • Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the performance of the best group member (e. g. , research team). • The potential performance of groups doing disjunctive tasks increases with group size. • The probability that the group includes a superior performer is greater. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 16
Process Losses (1 of 3) • As groups performing tasks get bigger, they tend to suffer from process losses. • Process losses are performance difficulties that stem from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups. • Problems of communication and decision making increase with size. Actual performance = Potential performance – Process losses Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 17
Process Losses (3 of 3) • Thus, up to a point, larger groups might perform better as groups, but their individual members tend to be less efficient. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 18
Conjunctive Tasks • Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member (e. g. , assembly line). • Both the potential and actual performance of conjunctive tasks will decrease as group size increases. • As size increases, the probability of including a weak link in the group goes up. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 19
Group Size and Performance: Summary • For additive and disjunctive tasks, larger groups might perform better up to a point but at increasing costs to the efficiency of individual members. • Performance on purely conjunctive tasks should decrease as group size increases. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 20
Group Norms (1 of 2) • Social norms are collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. • They are codes of conduct that specify the standards against which we evaluate the appropriateness of behaviour. • Changing norms is one way to change people’s behaviour. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 21
Group Norms (2 of 2) • Most normative influence is unconscious; we are only aware of it in special circumstances such as when we enter new social situations. • We also become conscious of norms when we encounter ones that seem to conflict with each other. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 22
Some Typical Norms • Some types of norms that exist in most organizations and affect the behaviour of members include: – Dress norms – Reward allocation norms (equity, equality, reciprocity, social responsibility) – Performance norms Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 23
Roles • Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them. • Roles represent “packages” of norms that apply to particular group members. • There are two basic kinds of roles in organizations: – Assigned roles – Emergent roles Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 24
Assigned Roles • Formally prescribed by an organization as a means of dividing labour and responsibility to facilitate task achievement. • Assigned roles indicate “who does what” and “who can tell others what to do. ” Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 25
Emergent Roles • Roles that develop naturally to meet the socialemotional needs of group members or to assist in formal job accomplishment. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 26
Group Cohesiveness • Group cohesiveness is a critical emergent property of groups. • It refers to the degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members. • Members want to stay in the group and they describe the group in favourable terms. • Cohesiveness is a relative, rather than absolute, property of groups. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 27
Factors Influencing Cohesiveness • What makes some groups more cohesive than others? • Important factors include: – – – Threat and competition Success Member diversity Group size Toughness of initiation Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 28
Threat and Competition • External threat to the survival of the group increases cohesiveness. • Honest competition with another group can also promote cohesiveness. • The group becomes more cohesive because it improves communication and coordination so they can better cope with the situation at hand. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 29
Success • Groups become more cohesive when they successfully accomplish some important goal. • Cohesiveness will decrease after failure. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 30
Member Diversity • Groups that are diverse in terms of gender, age, and race can have a harder time becoming cohesive than more homogeneous groups. • If the group is in agreement about how to accomplish a task, its success will often outweigh surface dissimilarity in determining cohesiveness. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 31
Size (1 of 2) • Larger groups have a more difficult time becoming and staying cohesive. • Large groups have a more difficult time agreeing on goals and more problems communicating and coordinating efforts to achieve their goals. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 32
More Participation in Group Activities • There is more participation in cohesive groups in terms of lower voluntary turnover and absenteeism, and a high degree of communication within the group. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 33
More Conformity (1 of 2) • Highly cohesive groups are able to induce greater conformity to group norms. • Members of cohesive groups are especially motivated to engage in activities that will keep the group cohesive. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 34
More Conformity (2 of 2) • The group can apply pressure to deviants to get them to comply with group norms. • Cohesive groups react to deviants by increasing the amount of communication directed at these individuals. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 35
More Success (1 of 5) • Cohesiveness contributes to group success. • Cohesive groups are good at achieving their goals. • Group cohesiveness is related to performance. • There is a reciprocal relationship between success and cohesiveness. • Why are cohesive groups effective at goal accomplishment? Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 36
More Success (2 of 5) • A high degree of participation and communication, coupled with active conformity to group norms and commitment, should ensure a high degree of agreement about the goals the group is pursuing and the methods it is using to achieve those goals. • Should managers attempt to increase the cohesiveness of work groups? Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 37
More Success (3 of 5) • Cohesive groups are especially effective at accomplishing their own goals. • If these goals correspond with those of the organization, increased cohesiveness should have benefits for group performance. • If not, organizational effectiveness might be threatened. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 38
More Success (4 of 5) • In highly cohesive groups, the productivity of individual group members is similar to other members; in less cohesive groups, there is more variation in productivity. • Highly cohesive groups tend to be more or less productive than less cohesive groups, depending on a number of variables. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 39
More Success (5 of 5) • If groups have productivity norms, more cohesive groups should be better able to enforce them. • If cohesive groups accept organizational norms for productivity, they should be highly productive. • Cohesiveness is more likely to pay off when the task requires more interdependence. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 40
What Is a Team? • The term “team” is generally used to describe “groups” in organizational settings. • Teams have become a major building block of many organizations. • Research has shown improvements in organizational performance in terms of both efficiency and quality as a result of team-based work arrangements. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 41
Self-Managed Work Teams • Work groups that have the opportunity to do challenging work under reduced supervision. • The groups regulate much of their own members’ behaviour. • Critical success factors of self-managed teams include: – The nature of the task. – The composition of the group. – Support. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 42
Tasks for Self-Managed Teams • Tasks assigned to self-managed work teams should be complex and challenging. • They should require high interdependence among team members for accomplishment. • The tasks should have the qualities of enriched jobs (e. g. , task significance). • Group members adopt roles that will make the group effective, not ones that are simply related to a narrow specialty. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 43
Composition of Self-Managed Teams (1 of 3) • How should organizations assemble self-managed teams to ensure effectiveness? – – Stability Size Expertise Diversity Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 44
Stability • Self-managed teams require considerable interaction and high cohesiveness and this requires understanding and trust. • Group membership should be fairly stable. • Rotating members into and out of the group will cause it to fail to develop a true group identity. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 45
Size (2 of 2) • Self-managed teams should be as small as feasible. • The goal is to keep coordination problems and social loafing to a minimum. • These negative factors can be especially difficult for self-managed groups. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 46
Expertise • Group members should have a high level of expertise about the task at hand as well as social skills. • The group as a whole should be very knowledgeable about the task. • All members should possess to some degree social skills. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 47
Composition of Self-Managed Teams (2 of 3) • One way of maintaining appropriate group composition is to let the group choose its own members. • The selection stage is critical as it is important to avoid turnover problems in self-managed groups. • “Fit” is important and it is worth expanding the extra effort to find the right people. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 48
Composition of Self-Managed Teams (3 of 3) • High cohesiveness and the development of group norms that stress group effectiveness is key. • The development of trust among team members is critical for high team performance. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 49
Effectiveness of Self-Managed Work Teams • Research has shown improvements in team productivity, quality, customer satisfaction, and safety following the implementation of selfmanaged work teams. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 50
Cross-Functional Teams (1 of 2) • Work groups that bring people with different functional specialties together to better invent, design, or deliver a product or service. • Members have to be experts in their own area but able to cooperate with others. • Cross-functional teams are best known for their success in product development. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 51
Cross-Functional Teams (2 of 2) • The general goals of using cross-functional teams include some combination of innovation, speed, and quality that come from early coordination among the various specialties. • Cross-functional teams get all of the specialties working together from day one. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 52
Principles for Effectiveness • Research has discovered a number of factors that contribute to the effectiveness of cross-functional teams: – – – Composition Superordinate goals Physical proximity Autonomy Rules and procedures Leadership Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 53
Composition • All relevant specialties are necessary and must be included. • Effective teams are sure not to overlook anyone (e. g. , labour representatives, suppliers, clients). Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 54
Physical Proximity • Team members have to be located close to each other to facilitate informal contact. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 55
Autonomy • Cross-functional teams need some autonomy from the larger organization. • Functional specialists need some authority to commit their function to project decisions. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 56
Rules and Procedures • Petty rules and procedures should be avoided. • Some basic decision procedures must be laid down to prevent anarchy. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 57
Leadership (1 of 2) • Cross-functional team leaders need especially strong people skills in addition to task expertise because of the potential for conflict. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 58
Virtual Teams (1 of 2) • With globalization and the advent of high-tech communication, virtual teams have emerged as critical for organizational success. • Virtual teams are work groups that use technology to communicate and collaborate across time, space, and organizational boundaries. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 59
Virtual Teams (2 of 2) • Along with the reliance on computer and electronic technology, the primary feature of virtual teams is the lack of face-to-face contact between team members due to geographic dispersion. • Virtual teams are often cross-functional and the technology they use can be either asynchronous or synchronous. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 60
Advantages of Virtual Teams (2 of 2) • Virtual teams have a number of advantages: – Around-the-clock work – Reduced travel time and cost – Larger talent pool Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 61
Challenges of Virtual Teams (1 of 3) • Managers must recognize that virtual teams present unique challenges and should not be treated as regular teams that just happen to use technology: – – Trust Miscommunication Isolation Management issues Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 62
Trust • Trust is difficult to develop between virtual team members due to the lack of physical contact and socialization. • Trust is even more important in virtual teams than in conventional teams to achieve high team effectiveness. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 63
Miscommunication • The loss of face-to-face communication presents certain risks for virtual teams. • Using technology, the richness of face-to-face communication is lost and miscommunication can result. • These risks can be particularly high on global virtual teams. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 64
Isolation • Casual interactions between co-workers are usually not possible for virtual teams. • A lack of casual interactions among team members can lead to feelings of isolation and detachment. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 65
Management Issues • For managers, virtual teams can create new challenges in terms of dealing with subordinates who are no longer in view. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 66
Challenges of Virtual Teams (2 of 3) • A review of research on information sharing in virtual teams versus face-to-face teams found that: – Virtual teams engaged in a lower volume of information sharing. – Virtual teams were more likely to share unique information which was not known by other team members. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 67
Challenges of Virtual Teams (3 of 3) – The performance of virtual teams was especially dependent upon them also having a high volume of open communication to complement unique ideas. – Hybrid teams that combine face-to-face interaction with virtual interaction were found to be especially likely to share information. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 68
Lessons Concerning Virtual Teams (1 of 2) • A number of lessons have emerged about what managers must do or keep watch for when developing virtual teams: – – Recruitment Training Personalization Leadership Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 69
Recruitment • Choose team members carefully in terms of attitude and personality so they are excited about these types of teams and can handle the independence and isolation of them. • Find people with good interpersonal and intercultural skills, not just technical expertise. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 70
Personalization • Encourage team members to get to know each other through informal communication or face-toface meetings. • Reduce feelings of isolation. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 71
Lessons Concerning Virtual Teams (2 of 2) • The key is recognizing the ways in which virtual teams are different from those based in a single office environment but not falling into the trap of focusing solely on technology. • Virtual teams must be real teams, if not by location, then in mind and spirit. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Canada Inc. 7 - 72
- Slides: 72