ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR CHAPTER 2 2 PERSONALITY PERCEPTION AND

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR CHAPTER 2

2 PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION AND ATTRIBUTION • Individual differences • Perception • A Social Information Processing Model of Perception • Stereotypes • Causal Attributions • Personal Values • Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes • Key Workplace Attitudes Chapter 2 | Slide 2

The Differences Matter What Are Individual Differences (IDs)? • Broad category used to collectively describe the vast number of attributes that describe a person Chapter 3 | Slide 3

The Differences Matter Applying Knowledge about IDs • Some differences are relatively stable over time and across situations and are difficult to change • Other differences are relatively flexible Chapter 3 | Slide 4

The Differences Matter Implications of IDs for Managers • Managers have little or no impact on fixed IDs: – Intelligence – Personality • Managers can help employees manage: – Attitudes – Emotions • Managers have more influence on relatively flexible IDs that influence individual-level work outcomes: – Performance – Job satisfaction Chapter 3 | Slide 5

Test Your OB Knowledge Maria is a manager for Greens and Grits. Maria would like to improve job satisfaction for her employees. She can accomplish this by implementing different policies dealing with: A. B. C. D. E. Personality Intelligence Cognitive ability Emotions and attitudes All of the above

Personal Values What are values? • Abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and behavior across all situations • Values are relatively stable Chapter 2 | Slide 7

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception What is Perception? • A cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings • OB is concerned with social perception • Important in OB because perception affects actions and decisions Chapter 4 | Slide 8

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Perceptual Errors Can Be Avoided by Understanding the Process that Guides Perception Chapter 4 | Slide 9

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension • Attention is the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone • People pay attention to salient stimuli: – Something that stands out from its context Chapter 4 | Slide 10

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification • Encoding: – To interpret and evaluate the environment using schemata and cognitive categories – Encoding and schemata help to organize and remember information • Simplification: – Relying on encoding helps us to simplify what might be a bewildering range of inputs – Encoding and schemata make the world more manageable Chapter 4 | Slide 11

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Stage 3: Storage and Retention • Event Memory • Semantic Memory • Person Memory Chapter 4 | Slide 12

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Stage 4: Retrieval and Response • Information is retrieved from memory to make judgments and decisions ― Draw on, interpret, and integrate categorical information stored in long-term memory ― Retrieve a summary judgment that was already made Chapter 4 | Slide 13

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception Managerial Implications Hiring • • The existence of implicit cognition may lead to biased decisions Managers can be trained to understand reduce the bias Bias can be reduced by the use of structured interviews Use of virtual interviews Performance Appraisal • Faulty schema about good vs. poor performance leads to inaccurate appraisals and erodes morale • Managers must accurately identify and communicate behavioral characteristics to employees • Managers need a mechanism for remembering behavior Leadership • Employees’ evaluation of leader effectiveness are influenced by their schemata of good and poor leaders Chapter 4 | Slide 14

Test Your OB Knowledge Steven wants to be sure there is no implicit cognition creating bias in his company’s interviewing process. The best course of action is: A. B. C. D. E. To train all interviewers in the interview process To have more than one interviewer conducting interviews To conduct the interviews virtually To use a structured interview approach All of the above

Stereotypes What is a Stereotype? • An individual’s set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group • May or may not be accurate • Can lead to poor decisions • Can create barriers for: – – Women Older individuals People of color People with disabilities Chapter 4 | Slide 16

Stereotypes Stereotype Formation and Maintenance Categorization Inferences Maintenance Expectations It takes accurate information and motivation to reduce the use of stereotypes Chapter 4 | Slide 17

Stereotypes Managerial Challenges and Recommendations • Educate people about stereotypes and how they influence behavior and decision making • Create opportunities for diverse employees to meet and work with others • Encourage all employees to increase their awareness Chapter 4 | Slide 18

Test Your OB Knowledge All of the following are accurate about stereotypes EXCEPT: A. Stereotypes can lead to poor decisions B. All stereotypes are negative C. Stereotypes are used during the encoding process of perception D. Quality interpersonal contact among mixed groups may reduce the use of stereotypes E. Some people have negative stereotypes about older individuals

Causal Attributions What are Causal Attributions? • Suspected or inferred causes of behavior • Important because the attributions affect organizational behavior Chapter 4 | Slide 20

Causal Attributions Kelley’s Model of Attribution • Based on Heider’s theory that behavior can be attributed either to internal factors within a person or external factors within the environment • People make causal attributions by observing three dimensions of behavior: – Consensus – Distinctiveness – Consistency Can be high or low Chapter 4 | Slide 21

Causal Attributions How Does Consensus, Distinctiveness, and Consistency Lead to Specific Attributions? • People attribute behavior to either internal causes or external causes based on ranking of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency Attribution Consensus (People) Distinctiveness (Tasks) Consistency (Time) Internal Low High External High Low Chapter 4 | Slide 22

Causal Attributions Attributional Tendencies Fundamental attribution bias: ― One’s tendency to attribute another person’s behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors Self-serving bias: ― One’s tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure Chapter 4 | Slide 23

Causal Attributions Managerial Application and Implications We tend to disproportionately attribute behavior to internal causes Other attributional biases may lead managers to take inappropriate actions Attributional training sessions can help An employee’s attributions for his or her own performance have dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and personal attitudes Chapter 4 | Slide 24

Test Your OB Knowledge Megan was hurt at work. Megan’s manager concluded that Megan was careless and clumsy. Megan’s manager may have committed an error called: A. B. C. D. E. Fundamental attribution error Ultimate perception error Stereotyping error Self-serving bias error Internal cognition error

Personal Values Schwartz’s Value Theory • Values are motivational • Represent broad goals over time • Ten broad values guide behavior Chapter 2 | Slide 26

Personal Values Application of Schwartz’s Value Theory • Workplace Application • Managers can better supervise workers if they use the model to understand employees' values and motivation • Personal Application • Employees can better determine if they are spending time in a meaningful way by using the model to determine if values are consistent with goals Chapter 2 | Slide 27

Test Your OB Knowledge All of the following are true about personal values EXCEPT: A. In general, values are relatively stable across time and situations B. Values tend to vary across generations C. Schwartz’s value theory can be generalized across cultures D. Values are not motivational in nature E. Not all values are compatible Chapter 2 | Slide 28

Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes What are Personal Attitudes? • Important because they impact behavior • Ranges from positive to negative • Feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects Chapter 2 | Slide 29

Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes How are Personal Attitudes Different from Values? CONCEPT Personal Values SCOPE Global Personal Attitudes Specific INFLUENCE AFFECTS BEHAVIOR Broad: All Situations Variously Targeted: Specifically Via Intentions Chapter 2 | Slide 30

Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes Three Components of Attitudes Affective = “I feel” Cognitive = “I believe” Behavioral = “I intend” Chapter 2 | Slide 31

Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes When Attitudes and Reality Collide • Cognitive Dissonance – psychological discomfort experienced when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, values, or emotions) Reduced By • Changing attitude or behavior or both • Belittling the importance of the inconsistent behavior • Finding consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones Chapter 2 | Slide 32

Personal Attitudes and Their Impact on Behavior and Outcomes Attitudes Affect Behavior via Intentions Chapter 2 | Slide 33

Test Your OB Knowledge Jose is considering volunteering to help his company with its annual food drive. Which of the following is NOT an indicator of whether he will do so? A. Jose thinks the food bank is a great way to help his community. B. Jose is already volunteering at the animal shelter. C. Jose’s boss expects him to volunteer. D. Jose’s company gives employees a day off to volunteer. E. The food bank is located close to Jose’s home. Chapter 2 | Slide 34

Key Workplace Attitudes What is Organizational Commitment? • The extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and commits to its goals Chapter 2 | Slide 35

Key Workplace Attitudes Outcomes of Organizational Commitment Leads to Organizational Commitment Continued employment Greater motivation Chapter 2 | Slide 36

Key Workplace Attitudes Increasing Employee Commitment Enhance the level of trust Make sure management does not breach psychological contracts Hire people whose personal values align with the organization Chapter 2 | Slide 37

Key Workplace Attitudes What is Employee Engagement? • The harnessing of organizational members’ selves to their work roles • Where people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance Chapter 2 | Slide 38

Key Workplace Attitudes What contributes to Employee Engagement? Organization Level Factors Person Factors Environmental Characteristics Chapter 2 | Slide 39

Key Workplace Attitudes Increasing Employee Engagement �Measuring �Tracking �Responding to employee surveys Chapter 2 | Slide 40

Key Workplace Attitudes What is Perceived Organizational Support? • Reflects the extent to which employees believe that the organization: – Values their contributions – Genuinely cares about their well-being Chapter 2 | Slide 41

Key Workplace Attitudes Impact of Perceived Organizational Support Results in: Perceived Organizational Support People are willing to work hard and commit to the organization • Increased organizational commitment • Job satisfaction • Organizational citizenship behavior • Task performance • Lower turnover Chapter 2 | Slide 42

Test Your OB Knowledge Sandra manages the Marketing Department for the Greener Grass Corporation. In an effort to increase employee engagement, Sandra could try all the following EXCEPT: A. Redesign jobs so that workers have variety and feedback B. Take a class to learn how to be a charismatic leader C. Try to limit the stressors in the workplace D. As staff leave, replace them with new hires who score high in pessimism on a personality test E. Provide recognition to employees who perform well Chapter 2 | Slide 43

2 Integrative Framework for Understanding and Applying OB Chapter 2 | Slide 44