Organic and Biological Chemistry Organic Chemistry Organic chemistry

Organic and Biological Chemistry

Organic Chemistry • Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. • Carbon has the ability to form long chains. • Without this property, large biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids could not form. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Carbon Compounds • There are three hybridization states and geometries found in organic compounds: – sp 3 Tetrahedral – sp 2 Trigonal planar – sp Linear Organic and Biological Chemistry

Hydrocarbons • There are four basic types of hydrocarbons: – – Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Aromatic hydrocarbons Organic and Biological Chemistry

Properties of Alkanes • The only van der Waals force is the London dispersion force. Organic and • The boiling point increases with the length Biological Chemistry of the chain.

Alkanes • Alkanes contain only single bonds. • They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons. – They are “saturated” with hydrogens. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Formulas • Lewis structures of alkanes look like this. • They are also called structural formulas. • They are often not convenient, though… Organic and Biological Chemistry

Formulas …so more often condensed formulas are used. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Alkanes • Carbons in alkanes are sp 3 hybrids. • They have a tetrahedral geometry and 109. 5° bond angles. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Alkanes • There are only bonds in alkanes. • There is free rotation about the C—C bonds. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Isomers have the same molecular formulas, but the atoms are bonded in a different order. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Organic Nomenclature • There are three parts to a compound name: – Base: This tells how many carbons are in the longest continuous chain. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Organic Nomenclature • There are three parts to a compound name: – Base: This tells how many carbons are in the longest continuous chain. – Suffix: This tells what type of compound it is. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Organic Nomenclature • There are three parts to a compound name: – Base: This tells how many carbons are in the longest continuous chain. – Suffix: This tells what type of compound it is. – Prefix: This tells what groups are attached to the chain. Organic and Biological Chemistry

How to Name a Compound 1. Find the longest chain in the molecule. 2. Number the chain from the end nearest the first substituent encountered. 3. List the substituents as a prefix along with the number(s) of the carbon(s) to which they are attached. Organic and Biological Chemistry

How to Name a Compound If there is more than one type of substituent in the molecule, list them alphabetically. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Cycloalkanes • Carbon can also form ringed structures. • Five- and six-membered rings are most stable. – They can take on conformations in which their bond angles are very close to the tetrahedral angle. – Smaller rings are quite strained. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Reactions of Alkanes • Alkanes are rather unreactive due to the presence of only C—C and C—H -bonds. • Therefore, they make great nonpolar solvents. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Alkenes • Alkenes contain at least one carbon–carbon double bond. • They are unsaturated. – That is, they have fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Alkenes • Unlike alkanes, alkenes cannot rotate freely about the double bond. – The side-to-side overlap in the -bond makes this impossible without breaking the -bond. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Alkenes This creates geometric isomers, which differ from each other in the spatial arrangement of groups about the double bond. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Properties of Alkenes Structure also affects the physical properties of alkenes. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Nomenclature of Alkenes • The chain is numbered so the double bond gets the smallest possible number. • cis-Alkenes have the carbons in the chain on the same side of the molecule. • trans-Alkenes have the carbons in the chain on opposite sides of the molecule. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Alkynes • Alkynes contain at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. • The carbons in the triple bond are sp-hybridized and have a linear geometry. • They are also unsaturated. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Nomenclature of Alkynes 4 -methyl-2 -pentyne • The method for naming alkynes is analogous to the naming of alkenes. • However, the suffix is -yne rather than -ene. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Reactions of Alkynes • Alkynes undergo many of the same reactions alkenes do. • As with alkenes, the impetus for reaction is the replacement of -bonds with -bonds. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Aromatic Hydrocarbons • Aromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic hydrocarbons that have some particular features. • There is a p-orbital on each atom. – The molecule is planar. • There is an odd number of electron pairs in the system. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Aromatic Nomenclature Many aromatic hydrocarbons are known by their common names. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Reactions of Aromatic Compounds • In aromatic compounds, unlike in alkenes and alkynes, each pair of -electrons does not sit between two atoms. • Rather, the electrons are delocalized; this stabilizes aromatic compounds. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Reactions of Aromatic Compounds • Due to this stabilization, aromatic compounds do not undergo addition reactions; they undergo substitution. • In substitution reactions, hydrogen is replaced by a substituent. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Structure of Aromatic Compounds • Two substituents on a benzene ring could have three possible relationships: – ortho-: On adjacent carbons. – meta-: With one carbon between them. – para-: On opposite sides of ring. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Reactions of Aromatic Compounds Halogenation Friedel-Crafts Reactions of aromatic compounds often require a catalyst. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Functional Groups The term functional group is used to refer to parts of organic molecules where reactions tend to occur. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Alcohols • Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl groups, —OH. • They are named from the parent hydrocarbon; the suffix is changed to -ol and a number designates the carbon to which the hydroxyl is attached. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Alcohols • Alcohols are much more acidic than hydrocarbons. – p. Ka ~15 for most alcohols. – Aromatic alcohols have p. Ka ~10. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Ethers • Ethers tend to be quite unreactive. • Therefore, they are good polar solvents. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Carbonyl Compounds • The carbonyl group is a carbon-oxygen double bond. • Carbonyl compounds include many classes of compounds. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Aldehydes In an aldehyde, at least one hydrogen is attached to the carbonyl carbon. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Ketones In ketones, there are two carbons bonded to the carbonyl carbon. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Carboxylic Acids • Acids have a hydroxyl group bonded to the carbonyl group. • They are tart tasting. • Carboxylic acids are weak acids. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Esters • Esters are the products of reactions between carboxylic acids and alcohols. • They are found in many fruits and perfumes. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Amides are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with amines. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Amines • Amines are organic bases. • They generally have strong, unpleasant odors. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Chirality • Carbons with four different groups attached to them are handed, or chiral. • These are optical isomers or stereoisomers. • If one stereoisomer is “right-handed, ” its enantiomer is “left-handed. ” Organic and Biological Chemistry

Chirality S-ibuprofen • Many pharmaceuticals are chiral. • Often only one enantiomer is clinically active. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Amino Acids and Proteins • Proteins are polymers of -amino acids. • A condensation reaction between the amine end of one amino acid and the acid end of another produces a peptide bond. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Amino Acids and Proteins • Hydrogen bonding in peptide chains causes coils and helices in the chain. • Kinking and folding of the coiled chain gives proteins a characteristic shape. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Amino Acids and Proteins • Most enzymes are proteins. • The shape of the active site complements the shape of the substrate on which the enzyme acts; hence, the “lockand-key” model. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Carbohydrates Simple sugars are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Carbohydrates • In solution, they form cyclic structures. • These can form chains of sugars that form structural molecules such as starch and cellulose. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Nucleic Acids Two of the building blocks of RNA and DNA are sugars (ribose or deoxyribose) and cyclic bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil). Organic and Biological Chemistry

Nucleic Acids These combine with a phosphate to form a nucleotide. Organic and Biological Chemistry

Nucleic Acids Nucleotides combine to form the familiar double-helix form of the nucleic acids. Organic and Biological Chemistry