Optical fiber waveguides Lect2 Optical Fiber 4 th

Optical fiber waveguides Lect_2 Optical Fiber 4 th year, Elect. Eng. Dept. , ECE Lecturer: Dr. Emad Tammam

Outline • Introduction • Ray theory transmission • Electromagnetic mode theory for optical propagation • Cylindrical fiber • Single-mode fibers • Photonic crystal fibers

Early optical waveguide • The transmission of light via a dielectric waveguide structure was first proposed and investigated at the beginning of the twentieth century. • A transparent dielectric rod of silica glass with a refractive index of around 1. 5, surrounded by air, proved to be an impractical waveguide due to: Ø Unsupported structure (especially when very thin waveguides were considered in order to limit the number of optical modes propagated) Ø The excessive losses at any discontinuities of the glass–air interface. • Proposals for a clad dielectric rod in the mid-1950 s in order to overcome these problems.

Structure of optical fiber • A transparent core with a refractive index n 1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly lower refractive index n 2. • Function of the cladding is to: Ø Supports the waveguide structure. Ø Reduces the radiation loss into the surrounding air when sufficiently thick.

Optical fiber losses • The invention of the clad waveguide structure led to the first serious proposals in 1966 to utilize optical fibers as a communications medium, even though they had losses in excess of 1000 d. B km− 1. • Tremendous efforts to reduce the attenuation by purification of the materials Leading to improved conventional glass refining techniques giving fibers with losses of around 4. 2 d. B km− 1. • Progress in glass refining allowed fibers of losses below 1 d. B km− 1. • Most of this work was focused on the 0. 8 to 0. 9 μm wavelength band because the first generation of optical sources fabricated from gallium aluminum arsenide alloys operated in this region.

Optical fiber losses, cont. • Transmission at longer wavelengths (1. 1 to 1. 6 μm) would result in lower losses and reduced signal dispersion. • A shift in optical fiber source and detector technology was produced in order to provide operation at these longer wavelengths. • At longer wavelengths, especially around 1. 55 μm, typical high-performance fibers have losses of 0. 2 d. B km− 1.

Optical fiber losses, cont. • There is interest in glass-forming systems with low -loss transmission in the mid-infrared (2 to 5 μm) optical wavelength regions. • Although a system based on fluoride glass offers the potential for ultra-low-loss transmission of 0. 01 d. B km− 1 at a wavelength of 2. 55 μm. • Such fibers still exhibit losses of at least 0. 65 d. B km− 1 and they cannot yet be produced with the robust mechanical properties of silica fibers

Photonic crystal fiber • It is a new class of micro-structured optical fiber experimentally demonstrated in mid-1990 s, • It has applications ranging from light transmission over distance to optical device implementations (e. g. power splitters, amplifiers, bistable switches, wavelength converters). • It typically contains an array of air holes running along the longitudinal axis rather than consisting of a solid silica rod structure. • The presence of these holes provides an additional dimension to fiber design which has already resulted in new developments for both guiding and controlling light.

Ray theory transmission

Refractive index • Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium. • A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium than in one that is less dense. • Snell’s law of refraction: • As n 1 is greater than n 2 , the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence.

Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface

Critical angle φc • When the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°.

Total internal reflection • Occurs at the interface between two dielectrics of differing refractive indices when: Ø Light is incident from the dielectric of higher index on the dielectric of lower index. Ø Angles of incidence greater than the critical angle. • The light ray shown in the figure is known as a meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber core.

Total internal reflection, cont. • Any discontinuities or imperfections at the core– cladding interface result in refraction rather than total internal reflection, with the subsequent loss of the light ray into the cladding.

Acceptance angle • Is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be propagated. • Only rays with an angle to the normal greater than φc at the core–cladding interface are transmitted by total internal reflection • Any rays incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than θa will be transmitted to the core– cladding interface at an angle less than φc, and will not be totally internally reflected.

Acceptance angle, cont. • From symmetry considerations it may be noted that the output angle to the axis will be equal to the input angle for the ray.

Numerical aperture • Gives a relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved, namely the core, cladding and air.

Numerical aperture, cont. • Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n 0 is unity, it is simply equal to sin θa. • The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference Δ between the core and the cladding which is defined as

Numerical aperture, cont. • Relationships of the numerical aperture a very useful measure of the light-collecting ability of a fiber. • They are independent of the fiber core diameter and will hold for diameters as small as 8 μm. • For smaller diameters they break down as the geometric optics approach is invalid.

Skew rays • Category of ray exists which is transmitted without passing through the fiber axis. • It follow a helical path through the fiber. • Unlike Meridional rays, the point of emergence of skew rays from the fiber in air will depend upon the number of reflections they undergo rather than the input conditions to the fiber.

Skew rays, cont.

Skew rays, cont. • Skew rays will have a smoothing effect on the distribution of the light as it is transmitted, giving a more uniform output.

Skew rays, cont. • For the limiting case for total internal reflection is now considered, then φ becomes equal to the critical angle φc for the core–cladding interface • Using Snell’s law at the point A where θa represents the maximum input axial angle for meridional rays and θ is the internal axial angle.

Skew rays, cont. • The maximum input angle or acceptance angle for skew rays θas. • Thus the acceptance conditions for skew rays are:

Summary of skew rays • By comparison with meridional rays, it may be noted that: • Skew rays are accepted at larger axial angles in a given fiber than meridional rays, depending upon the value of cos γ. • In fact, for meridional rays cos γ is equal to unity and θas becomes equal to θa. Thus although θa is the maximum conical half angle for the acceptance of meridional rays, it defines the minimum input angle for skew rays. • Skew rays tend to propagate only in the annular region near the outer surface of the core, and do not fully utilize the core as a transmission medium. • They are complementary to meridional rays and increase the light-gathering capacity of the fiber especially for large NA fibers.