OCEANOGRAPHY STUDY OF THE MARINE WORLD Overview 70

OCEANOGRAPHY STUDY OF THE MARINE WORLD

Overview • 70. 8% Earth covered by ocean • Interconnected global or world ocean • Oceans contain 97. 2% of surface water Fig. 1. 3 ab

Principal oceans • • • Pacific - Largest, deepest Atlantic - Second largest Indian - Mainly in Southern Hemisphere Arctic - Smallest, shallowest, ice-covered Antarctic or Southern Ocean - Connects Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian – South of about 50 o S latitude

Ocean vs. Sea • Smaller and shallower than oceans • Salt water • Usually enclosed by land – Sargasso Sea defined by surrounding ocean currents • The Seven Seas

Comparison of elevation and depth Oceans Land • Average depth 3729 m (12, 234 ft) • Average elevation 840 m (2756 ft) • Deepest ocean Mariana Trench 11, 022 m (36, 161 ft) • Highest mountain Mt. Everest 8850 m (29, 935 ft)

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GAINING KNOWLEDGE OF THE OCEANS

Early Explorers • Voyaging on water was important to many early civilizations • Cartographers recorded information about locations, landmarks and currents. • Today, charts are detailed graphic representations of water and water-related information

Early Explorers ~1500 B. C. – THE PHOENICIANS

Early Explorers • The Library at Alexandria, in Egypt, was founded in the third century B. C. • The principles of celestial navigation were invented at the Library at Alexandria. The ancient library in Alexandria, Egypt, contained more than half a million scrolls, which had to be organized by subject. Abu Dhabi Men's College Library

Early Explorers • The Greeks – Eratosthenes of Cyrene • 2 nd librarian at Alexandria. • First to calculate the circumference of Earth. - 40000 km • Invented a system of longitude and latitude.

Early Explorers • The Greeks – Aristotle (384 -322 B. C. ) • catalogued marine organisms – Pliny The Elder (23 -79 A. D. ) • related phases of the moon to the tides • described the ocean currents moving through the Straits of Gibraltar – Ptolemy (127 -151 A. D. ) • produced the first world atlas with then-known world boundaries

Early Explorers • The Polynesian colonies are an example of knowledge of oceans and marine science used to colonize a vast number of islands. • “Red Arrows” indicate the direction and order of settlement. © 2002 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Early Polynesians Sailed Thousands of Miles for Trade

Early Explorers • The Chinese – Invented (among other things) • • The Compass The central rudder Water-tight compartments Sails on multiple masts Thinkquest. com

The Middle Ages • The Vikings – Pirates & Raiders – Farmers & Explorers – Colonized: • Iceland, Greenland, Vinland (America) • Iceland to Greenland – 25 boats, ~600 people – 14 boats remained Sources: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vikings http: //www. collectionscanada. ca/explorers/kids/index-e. html

The Vikings • Boats – “Knarrs” – merchant ships – Longboats (drakkar) – warships • Navigation table – Needle in center of table measured sun’s height – Bar around edge plotted ship’s course Sources: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vikings http: //www. collectionscanada. ca/explorers/kids/index-e. html Models, Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark (April 1991). Photo by Harri Blomberg. (http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Image: Vikingeskibsmuseet_12. jpg)

The Vikings • Bjarni Herjólfsson – First to “find” North America in 986 A. D. • Leifr Eiriksson – First to set foot in North America in 995 A. D. • Thorfinnr Thordarson and Freydis Eiriksdøttir – First to colonize Vinland (1003 to 1015 A. D. ) • Snorri Karlsefni – First baby born in North America (a boy) Sources: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vikings http: //www. collectionscanada. ca/explorers/kids/index-e. html

http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Image: Vikings-Voyages. png

New World Exploration • Prince Henry The Navigator – 3 rd son of the royal family of Portugal – May have established a center for the study of marine science & navigation. – sponsored voyages down the coast of Mauretania (primarily slaving expeditions) Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

New World Exploration • Christopher Columbus (1451? – 1506) – “Discovered” North America while trying to find a western route to Asia A replica of the Santa Maria, Columbus' flagship. Photo by: Dietrich Bartel. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/I mage: Santa-Maria. jpg

1492 - Columbus’ first voyage “discovered” San Salvador (now the Bahamas), although the natives called it Guanahani Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

1493 - Columbus’ second voyage through Hispaniola, Juana (Cuba), and other islands; established the short-lived settlement of Isabela on Hispaniola Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

1498 - Columbus’ third voyage brought him to South America, which he thought was adjacent to China Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

1502 - Columbus’ fourth voyage was primarily to search for the Strait of Malacca to the Indian Ocean. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (1454 -1512) Italian navigator who explored the northern shore of South America during 4 voyages. The American continent was named in his honor in 1507. 1 st Voyage 3 rd Voyage 2 nd Voyage 4 th Voyage

Juan Ponce de León (14601521) • Spanish explorer, born in San Servos, León. • In 1493 he accompanied Christopher Columbus on his second voyage to America. • Explored Florida

Ferdinand Magellan (1480 - 1521) • initiator and leader of the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (1519 -21) • 42, 000 miles - 22, 000 of them over waters no white man had ever seen - was an achievement without parallel in an era of fragile wooden ships. Detail from a map of Ortelius: Magellan's ship Victoria Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

James Cook (1728 – 1779) • The first real scientific oceanographic voyages. – Ships HMS Endeavour, Resolution, Adventure – Mapped many islands in Pacific – Systematically measured ocean characteristics – Marine chronograph (longitude) – Samples of marine life, land plants & animals, the ocean floor, & geologic formations – Recorded all of the information in logbooks. portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. 1775, Natio Maritime Museum, Greenwich A general chart of the island of Newfoundland. Surveyed by James Cook and Michael Lane, and "publish'd according to Act of Parliament by Thomas Jefferys Geographer to the King, 1775. "

Cook's first voyage was to the South Pacific Ocean Copyright/Source

During his second voyage, Cook tried to find out if there was land at the South Pole Copyright/Source

During his third voyage to try and find the Northwest Passage, Cook became the first European to land on Vancouver Island Copyright/Source

HMS Challenger • The Royal Society of London & Charles Wyville Thomson borrowed the Challenger from the Royal Navy • 1870 – 1872 - the first expedition devoted solely to marine science – modified the ship for scientific work – separate laboratories for natural history and chemistry. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

HMS Challenger • The results: the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger during the years 1873 -76, – – – 127500 km 492 deep sea soundings 133 bottom dredges 151 open water trawls 263 serial water temperature observations – about 4717 new species of marine life were discovered. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

JOHN MURRAY (1841 - 1914) • 1872 – took over publishing 50 volumes & reports on the HMS Challenger voyage • coined the word “oceanography” • Mid-Atlantic Ridge & oceanic trenches • Saharan desert deposits in deep ocean sediments Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Arctic) – 1564 - Jacques Cartier - Saint Lawrence River – 1845 – 1848 – Sir John Franklin (died with crew) – 1854 – Robert Mc. Clure finds Franklin crew & overland passage http: //earthobservatory. nasa. gov/Newsroom/New. Images/images. php 3? img_id=16340

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Arctic) – Roald Amundsen • First Voyage (1897 – 1899) to Antarctica – first people to winter there • Second Voyage (1903 - 1906) to the Arctic – Fishing boat “Gjöa” – First to travel the Northwest Passage – Discovered the Magnetic North Pole wanders Sources: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/ http: //www. collectionscanada. ca/explorers/kids/index-e. html Copyright/Source

Amundsen's Northwest Passage The Northwest Passage that Roald Amundsen navigated with great difficulty starting in 1903 is opening for the second year in a row, as shown in the AMSR-E sea ice product from the University of Bremen (Figure 4). The most recent operational analysis from the Canadian Ice Service and the U. S. National Ice Center on August 8 showed a small section of Amundsen’s historic path still blocked by a 50 kilometer (31 -mile) stretch of sea ice, although that should melt within the next few days. Amundsen’s route requires sailing through treacherous narrow and shallow channels, making it impractical for deep-draft commercial ships. The more important northern route, through the wide and deep Parry Channel, is still ice-clogged. The northern route opened in mid-August last year; it may still open up before the end of this year's melt season. source

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Arctic) • Third Voyage (1910 – 1912) - back to Antarctica Roald Amundsen, Olavson Bjaaland, Hilmer Hanssen, Sverre H. Hassel and Oscar Wisting by their South Pole marker tent and flag Sources: 1, 2, 3

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Arctic) – April 6 th, 1909, Robert Peary claimed to be the first person in recorded history to reach the North Pole – First people to reach the north Pole on foot/skis without outside help: Richard Weber (Canada) and Misha Malakhov (Russia) in 1995 North Pole Web Cam Photo. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/ http: //www. arctic. noaa. gov/gallery_np. html. Credit NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory.

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Antarctic) – James Cook (1772 – 1775) first person to cross Antarctic Circle & circumnavigated Antarctica without actually sighting it – Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (Russia) circumnavigated continent during 1819 -1821 – Charles Wilkes (1840, US Navy) realized that Antarctica was a continent – James Clark Ross (Britain) sailed through ice shelf, discovered Mt Erebus (a volcano) Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • Polar Expeditions (The Antarctic) – Adrian de Gerlache (1898 -1899, Begium) – first expedition to winter in Antarctica – Roald Amundsen, third Voyage (1910 – 1912) back to Antarctica • First person to reach the South Pole – 1956 - US Navy established the Amundsen. Scott South Pole Station Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

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TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • METEOR EXPEDITION (1925) – first use of an echo sounder • U. S. S. ATLANTIS (1931) – first research ship built specifically for ocean studies, confirmed MAR. • HMS CHALLENGER (1951) – Discovered the deepest part of the ocean’s deepest trenches.

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • GLOMAR CHALLENGER (1968) – (Glomar = Global Marine) – First deep sea drilling vessel – Confirmed ages of sea floor sediments & Sea Floor Spreading Hypothesis – Evaporites in cores = first evidence that the Mediterranean Sea once dried up – led to the JOIDES Resolution and eventually the Deep Sea Drilling Program. Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTIONS – Musée Océanographique de Monaco • 1910 By Prince Albert of Monaco – Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) – Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute – Scripps Institution of Oceanography – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • SATELLITE OCEANOGRAPHY – SEASAT (1978 – 1978) • first oceanographic satellite – Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface – Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction – Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature – Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud, land water features – Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) L-band, HH polarization, fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions Source: http: //en. wikipedia. org/wiki/

TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS • SATELLITE OCEANOGRAPHY – TOPEX/Poseidon (1995 – 2005) • Measures sea surface topography http: //sealevel. jpl. nasa. gov/technology. html

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