Observations LO Know the different types of observation
Observations LO: Know the different types of observation; Choose types observation appropriate to the aim of a study; Be aware of the practical and ethical issues associated with conducting observational research.
Core studies • Which core studies used observations? • Can you think of an alternative way each of those studies could have collected their data?
Observations • Psychologists face the problem that many of the processes • • • they wish to investigate can not be directly measured or observed. Attitudes, for example, are hypothetical constructs. Psychologists use the idea of attitudes to explain apparent consistencies in the ways people act towards various aspects of their world. But you can’t take a person’s attitudes out and look at them to find out what they are like – attitudes don’t have an independent existence in that way. Consequently, attitudes (like many other phenomena) can only be measured indirectly. That means using a person’s behaviour to make inferences about their psychological processes.
Explain each of the following terms: • Direct – Observing from the outside • Participant – Observing as one of the participants. • Structured – Observing with predefined behaviour and schedule. . • Unstructured – Observing openly, recording as much as possible. . • Interval (time sample) – Recording behaviours at set intervals. . • Nominal (event sample) – Recording behaviours into categories as they happen. . • Overt – Participants are aware they are being observed. . • Covert – Participants are NOT aware they are being observed.
Match observation types to aims: • Direct • Participant • Structured • Unstructured • Interval (time sample) • Co-operation in • • Nominal (event sample) • • Overt • • Covert classroom activities. Gender differences in supermarket queuing. Obedience to authority. Imitation of helping behaviour. Aggression in an under 18 s rugby match. Studying behaviours in a university library.
Key points to consider when conducting observations: • Ethics: – No invasion of privacy; – Do not put researchers or participants at risk; – Consent; – Withdrawal. • Practicality / Usefulness: – The type of observation undertaken should match the aim; – The collection of data should aim to be as valid as possible, whilst still being controlled, ethical and reliable.
The secret life of Year Seven • Professor Fakedata and Dr Fraud are investigating • peer groups in young adolescents. Specifically, they want to investigate the attitudes of year seven pupils towards their classmates. However, whilst they agree on whit they want to find out, they disagree on how to obtain the data they need. Professor Fakedata thinks that the best measure of a person’s attitudes is what they do. She plans to carry out observations of the pupils’ behaviour towards each other (1) in their classrooms and (2) in the playground. Her view is that the ways in which the pupils interact with each other will indicate their attitudes.
Questions 1. Of the two locations chosen by Professor 2. Fakedata, which do you think is the most likely to yield valid data? Why do you think this? What sorts of problems might the professor encounter when gathering and interpreting her data?
• Dr Fraud disagrees with the professor about attitude measurement. His view is that you get a more valid measurement by asking people questions about their attitudes. He is planning to interview the students but has not decided between (1) interviewing groups of students in a classroom and (2) interviewing individual students in an office. 1. Which of the two strategies would you 2. recommend to Dr Fraud? Why? What sorts of problems might Dr Fraud encounter when gathering and interpreting his data?
• Whichever method – observation or questioning - is chosen to measure people’s attitudes, one big problem is that different researchers may ask questions or make observations in different ways. 1. Why do you think inconsistency of this sort is a problem in psychological research? 2. How could you ensure consistency between researchers’ observations or questions?
• Observational studies tell you what people do but not why they do it. Psychologists who attempt to address the why of human behaviour by doing observational studies are usually doing little more than guessing • To what extent is this a fair cricticism?
• Co-operation in classroom activities. • Gender differences in supermarket • • queuing. Obedience to authority. Imitation of helping behaviour. Aggression in an under 18 s rugby match. Studying behaviours in a university library.
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