Observation Introduction Learning Objectives Identify the features of

Observation Introduction

Learning Objectives • Identify the features of Observational research. • Apply Event and Time Sampling and Behavioural Categories and Coding Frames to an observation. • Outline strengths/weaknesses of Event and Time Sampling.

Key terms • Observation • Event sampling • Structured observation • Time sampling • Unstructured observation • Inter rater reliability • Naturalistic observation • Coding frames • Controlled observation • Behavioural categories • Covert observation • Overt observation • Participant observation • Non participant observation

Observation: where a researcher observes and records participants’ behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables. Stretch and Challenge: psychology is the scientific study of what? What can’t we observe?

Observation • Observations can be used as part of an experiment. • I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look. • I'm using an observation as part of my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV). IV: Cold IV: Hot Primary method: experiment Secondary technique: observation

Observation If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying out observation research, not an experiment. No IV Primary method: Observation Stretch and Challenge: if there is no IV or manipulation, what can’t be established?

Observational Studies • Still use the sampling methods – Volunteer, self selected, random, snowball • Still have the same ethical issues – CDCDWP – Respect, competence, integrity

Features of an observation • There are things we need to know about observations: – Structured/unstructured – Naturalistic/controlled – Covert/overt – Participant/non-participant – Event sampling/time sampling

Structured/unstructured Structured Unstructured • • Using predefined coding categories for behaviour : Recording everything observed during the observation: Easier to record Increases validity Easier to establish inter-rater Applicable to a wide range of reliability contexts Reductionist Harder to record Can reduce validity Harder to establish reliability Open to observer bias

Naturalistic/controlled Controlled Naturalistic • • This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment. • This technique involves a situation being contrived by the researcher. • It’s often used where it would be Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting. unethical to manipulate variables. • Think of examples where a naturalistic • observation may be useful… • Identify possible strengths and Think of examples where you have seen the use of controlled observation. • Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using naturalistic weaknesses of using controlled observation.

Covert/overt Covert Overt • • Participants do not know they are being observed: Participants do know they are being observed: ü Increases validity ü Reduces ethical issues ü Less social desirability/demand Social desirability/demand characteristics Ethical issues characteristics Decreases validity Stretch and Challenge: What ethical issues are associated with covert observation? Why would an overt observation decrease validity?

Participant/non-participant Participant Non-participant • • The researcher is involved with the The researcher remains separate from people they are observing: the person they are observing: Only way to observe behaviour Easier to remain objective (cults/gangs) No influence on behaviour Greater accuracy and detail Less ethical issues Harder to remain objective Can’t observe certain behaviour Can influence behaviour, reducing Less detail and accuracy validity Ethical issues

Task • Complete Activity 1: Observation Types question

Event and time sampling • Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening. • So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour: – Event Sampling: every occurrence of behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified period of time – Time Sampling: behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e. g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds) Note: this kind of ‘sample’ has nothing to do with participants!

Activities - Observation Task • We shall now practise observations. • You will be given one of two cards: – Structured observation with time sampling – Structured observation with event sampling – See the workbook for instructions. Stretch and Challenge: is this a participation or non-participant observation?

Event and Time Sampling Evaluation Time Sampling More representative over time Easier, more reliable observations Can miss important events Event Sampling Less likely to miss predefined events Increases validity and reliability Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once Can miss events not coded for

Inter-rater Reliability • Inter-rater reliability: researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way. • If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests: – the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity – they’re not observing the same event. • Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability; they have to agree first.

Designing Observations – Behavioural Categories • Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs. • Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of: a) A student doing their homework? b) A child in a room with toys? c) A teacher in a classroom? • Group work – What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories?

Designing Observations – Coding Frames • Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different sub-type within a category. • Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching • Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK, Severity of strength of the Kicks–K 1, K 2, K 3, K 4, K 5 • Task – for the previous behavioural categories, list some coding frames.

Observation General Evaluation

Learning Objectives • Identify strengths and weaknesses in observations. • Evaluate observations using validity/reliability. • Conduct your own observation.

Ethical Issues Invasion of privacy • Confidentiality should be respected. • Public places: people expect to be seen by others. • C D W P (respect, integrity, confidentiality). • Need to know how you can address ethical issues. ! COVERT OBSERVATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY BREACH INFORMED CONSENT ETHICS BECAUSE YOU CAN OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT CONSENT IN AREAS WHERE THEY EXPECT TO BE OBSERVED !

Advantages See how people behave rather than how they say they behave. Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e. g. behaviour in prisons. Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research. Stretch and Challenge: If you’ve already done an observation and can predict the results will be what kind of hypothesis would you have?

Disadvantages Difficult to replicate Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect Observer bias Observer effect Time consuming and requires careful preparation

Validity and Reliability • To increase validity: – Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect) – Double blind observations to reduce observer bias – Clearly operationalised coding system. • To increase reliability: – Clearly operationalised coding system – Check inter-rater reliability – Train researchers to use coding system – Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories.

Conducting an observation • In groups you are going to carry out an observation. • You may decide which type of observation you will conduct and for which type of behaviour. Your proposal must be checked by your teacher (ethical approval) before you start! • Conduct your observation and collate your findings. You will need to produce a report for peer review.

Assessment: Define these key terms and identify strengths and weaknesses • Observation • Event sampling • Structured observation • Time sampling • Unstructured observation • Inter rater reliability • Naturalistic observation • Coding frames • Controlled observation • Behavioural categories • Covert observation • Overt observation • Participant observation • Non participant observation

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