OBSERVATION Abbygale Lawson What is observation Observation by
OBSERVATION Abbygale Lawson
What is observation? ? ■ Observation by itself is not an experimental method, however if an independent variable is added, then it is experimental. ■ In a naturalistic observation behaviour is studied on familiar, ‘home ground’ for participants, e. g. an infant in a nursery or an animal’s natural habitat. All aspects of the environment are free to vary ■ In a controlled observation some variables in the environment are manipulated by the researcher. Participants are likely to know they are being studied and the study might be conducted in a lab. ■ There also; covert and overt observations and participant and nonparticipant observations
What is observation? ? ■ Covert observations are those in which the participants are unaware they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed without their knowledge (at least before and during the study). They may be informed after. ■ Overt observations are when participants know their behaviour is being observed and have given their informed consent beforehand. ■ Participant observations are observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed, which could affect their objectivity. ■ Non-participant observations happen when the observer is separate from the people being observed.
Examples of observation ■ Ainsworth used a behaviour schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction behaviours directed toward the mother were measured, e. g. Ø Proximity and contacting seeking Ø Contact maintaining Ø Avoidance of proximity and contact Ø Resistance to contact and comforting ■ The observer noted down the behaviour displayed and scored the behaviour for intensity. ■ This is an example of a controlled observation ■ Rosenhan’s study (1973) of the experience of people in a psychiatric ward would be considered disguised participant observation because Rosenhan and his pseudopatients were admitted into psychiatric hospitals on the pretence of being patients so that they could observe the way that psychiatric patients are treated by staff. The staff and other patients were unaware of their true identities as researchers.
Pilot Study ■ A researcher watches primary school children through a two-way mirror in their classroom to investigate their obedience. ■ Observes the behaviour of the child when they are told off. ■ There will be three possible outcomes: Ø The child reacts by listening to the teacher Ø The child reacts by deliberately disobeying the teacher Ø The child reacts in an outburst e. g. crying, screaming, etc ■ This would be a covert, naturalistic observation as the children would be in their natural environment and unaware that any observation is happening. ■ This would be a non-participant observation as the observer is not taking part in activities or behaviour, they are observing through a two-way mirror
Strengths of observation ■ High validity: record what people see directly ■ Naturalistic observation gives a realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour and therefore has higher ecological validity as they are applicable to everyday situations (e. g. in my pilot study, the children don’t know they’re being observed and so behaviour would be as it is normally). Though this may be lowered if the participants know that they are being observed ■ In controlled observation, observers can focus on particular aspects of behaviour, e. g. a child’s obedience ■ In covert observations, the participants are unaware that their behaviour is being watched and so therefore their behaviour is more natural (as with my pilot study, the children do not know they are being observed so their level of obedience should be normal) ■ Participant observation may provide special insights into behaviour from the ‘inside’ that may not otherwise be gained ■ Non-participant observation observers are more likely to be more objective because they are not part of the group being observed
Limitations of observation ■ Could be observer bias, sometimes could be difficult to be objective when making observations. Using more than one observer could reduce the risk of observer bias affecting the validity of the observations. ■ In a naturalistic observation there is little control of all other things that are happening, which may mean something unknown to the observer may account for the behaviour being observed, (for example in my study, if a student had not gotten much sleep the night before, they may be more likely to react in an outburst) ■ Controlled observations are unnatural and therefore behaviour could be unnatural ■ Overt observations may result in unnatural behaviour as the participants know they are being observed. ■ Covert observations have the ethical issue of consent, participants cannot give prior consent to something they do not know is happening. Though, it may be possible to get retrospective consent
Participants ■ My pilot study would find participants using an opportunity sample ■ Opportunity samples are a sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study. ■ Strengths: Ø Easiest method because just use first suitable participants Ø Takes less time to locate sample ■ Limitations: Ø Inevitably biased because sample is drawn from small part of the population Ø May not be very representative of population as a whole
Data Analysis
Researcher bias ■ As it is not an experiment, it does not really have researcher bias but it could have observer bias: ■ The study could have some observer bias as it is difficult to be objective when making observations because what people observe is often distorted by their own expectations of what is likely to happen or what they would hope to see. ■ Using more than one observer may reduce the risk of observer bias affecting the validity of the observations.
Participant bias ■ My study does not have participant biases as it is a covert, naturalistic observation ■ Therefore, since the participants do not know that they are being observed, they cannot have a participant bias ■ There could be some participant bias if the teacher were to know that the observation was taking place, as they might then act differently or behave differently from how they normally behave around the students. They may be more or less likely to ‘tell off’ students. ■ However, the teacher would not know that the observation was taking place, as the aim of the observation is not to focus on the teacher, it is to focus on the children and their reactions to the teacher and so therefore the teacher does not have to know.
Ethics ■ Since my study is a covert, naturalistic observation, there may be some ethical issues. ■ For example; as it is covert, the participants are not aware that they are being observed and therefore they cannot give prior consent. ■ HOWEVER, it would affect the validity of the results if the participants were to be told that they were being observed and so it is vital that it remains covert. ■ Though it may be less vital that the teacher remain unaware, the teacher may still (although unintentionally) change their behaviour if they are aware that their class is being observed, and so therefore should remain unaware. As well as this, the teacher is not the one being observed. ■ This raises the issue of consent as they are all unaware of the observation. HOWEVER, it may be possible to seek retrospective consent
Reliability and Validity ■ As it is a covert, naturalistic observation, there is high ecological validity due to the participants not knowing they are being observed. ■ Reliability refers the extent that observations can be replicated. Seeing behaviours occur over and over again may be a time consuming task. ■ This pilot study could be easily replicated if needed and so although time consuming, it does not really affect the reliability
Conclusions ■ In relation to obedience, this method is quite suitable. Ø It has high ecological validity, so the behaviour is natural Ø There is no participant bias (as far as the students go) as they are unaware that an observation is taking place and so therefore cannot manipulate their behaviour to behave in a way that they think is expected from the observer (they would behave normally) Ø Gives a realistic picture of spontaneous and/or unexpected behaviour Ø Easily replicated ■ However, there is the issue of prior consent which would not be given in this study ■ Overall, a more effective way of observing or studying obedience
- Slides: 14