NORM Final Disposal Options risk cost considerations Gert

NORM Final Disposal Options (risk & cost considerations) Gert Jonkers Engineering & Analytical - GSEA/4 “Problem Solving” (Shell E&P Ionising Radiation/NORM HSE Expert CHP) location Shell Research & Technology Centre, Amsterdam P. O. 38000 NL-1030 BN Amsterdam the Netherlands

NORM after abandonment - Internal & External Radiation Hazard TARGET Reducing both External and Internal Dose by Naturally Occurring Radionuclides in Deposits (NORM ) from former Gas/Oil Production Activities to a Negligible Level for Future Inhabitants Ingestion Determine amount of radioactivity in the food chain. Inhalation Potential (topsoil) dust activity levels extremely low. External g (Sub)soil activity levels sufficient low. a b g 2 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

NORM (PRE)TREATMENT OPTIONS (pre-disposal) Target Produced Water Method Filtration plant (Matrix [re]injection) Filtering/Gravity separation NOR’s [left] in TDS/TSS Vol. Reduct. > 99% Sludge Thermal (physical) De-oil/de-scale (mechan-/chem-ical) Bio/chemical/physical ? Vitrification Incineration ? “Solids” Solids/TDS “Solids” “glased solids slag/fly-ash > 99% > 95% ? > 95% Contamination Scale-water/grit/CO 2 -pellets Jetting Liquid/Solid De-scaling (chelating agents) TDS Scrap melting slag/fly-ash > 95% > 99% > 90% Soil Wash (mechanical/chemical) TDS/TSS > 95% Waste Immobilisation (bitumen/polymers) drums ~ 0% 3 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Isolation from Environment NORM FINAL DISPOSAL OPTIONS Dilution into the Environment Controlled Surface Storage Injection in Sealed Reservoir Immobilisation & Sealed Subsurface Storage 4 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Conditional Release Limits (CRL) radiation workers 20, 000 m. Sv/a workers (2, 000 h/a) 1, 000 m. Sv/a public 1, 000 m. Sv/a NORM- source constraint 300 m. Sv/a DOSE annual limits Effective Dose in Sievert gas/oil industry-specific exposure scenario’s encompassing dedicated radiation protection controlled work with “NORM” & potential future public use NOR-contaminated items EXPOSURE scenarios External & Internal to be issued and endorsed by the competent authority for radiation workers, workforce/public at large source constraint for dose control set of enveloping exposure scenario’s encompassing all industrial uncontrolled work with “NORM” leading to workforce/public exposure set of NOR-specific Conditional Release Limits (CRL’s; only to be applied within the CONCENTRATION constraints of the gas/oil industry specific (limits for air, water, soil) exposure scenario’s) Becquerel per m 3, L or g Generic EP or Group operating unit specific scenario’s Generic CRL’s for EP NORM disposal CRL (Bq[…]/g) Condition Spreading Sludge farming Shallow disposal Deep hole disposal 226 Ra 210 Pb 228 Ra set of NOR-specific Unconditional Release Limits (URL’s; may be applied under all circumstances) competent authority enveloping scenario's URL’s 228 Th 226 Ra EU BSS ICRP 2005 0. 5 1 210 Pb 5 1 228 Ra 1 1 228 Th 0. 5 1 5 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Dose Assessment Study Conditional Release Limit (referenced against the NORM Source Constraint defined the Competent Authority) Ø Collection/compilation of site specific data characterising the (geo)hydrological setting, climate conditions, background radiation levels and radioactivity concentration in various environmental media including soil, subsoil, surface water, ground water, airborne dusts, fauna and flora. Ø Identification and quantification of the source terms (input of NORM for intended final disposal option), the chemical and physical form of the radionuclides the points of release, and the time distribution of release. Ø Identification of the potential environmental pathways. Ø Identification of the critical population, defining (conditional) scenarios Ø Assessment of the individual dose using a computer modelling. 6 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Assume Worst Case Scenario, but don’t loose reality 7 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

NORM FINAL DISPOSAL. ð Environmental exposure acceptability ð Public acceptability ð Economic acceptability ð Universal acceptability ð Time to make the option viable ð Time for industry use once the option is viable 8 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

DOSE ASSESSMENT REQUIRES MODELLING Versatile RESidual RADioactivity code (all pathways) applicable to • Soil Contamination (Landspreading, Cleanup); • Shallow Burial (Landfill, special fills) • Deep Burial Have developed dose assessment, incl. site/target specific parameters Specific & In-house (Shell) • flat source (external radiation, microshield), • sludge farming (external & dust) Deep downhole disposal (matrix or In-house (Shell) • Mores, fracture injection) other in-house • FORDAM disciplines 9 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Dilution into the Environment Sludge farming (Landspreading) with dilution includes mixing of the applied wastes thoroughly within the topsoil. The area covered may be arbitrarily large. Analyses of landspreading with dilution also are based on incremental increase of NOR concentrations above background levels, and thus are also restricted to one-time disposal in a given area (record-keeping!). 0. 2 <> 5 Bq[226 Raeq]/g Grinding (de-oiled) scales to a prescribed particle size distribution and subsequent overboard disposal dilutes these materials into the marine environment. Disposal is based on incremental increase of NOR- concentrations above natural marine background levels. Record-keeping and possible radiation surveys to characterise preand post-spreading radiation levels around platforms are measures to control the impact on the marine environment. < 5 Bq[226 Raeq]/g[solid] Cleanup criteria for soil contamination. Scraping of contaminated soil, leaving remnant (residual) radioactivity levels. < 5 Bq[226 Raeq]/g[soil] 10 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

“Controlled Disposal” Land based burial with unrestricted site re-use may occupy any available land area with minimal or no groundwater(flow). There may be some requirements like dewatering/oiling, solidification, consolidation, packaging (crates, boxes, drums) or compaction, before the waste is actually buried in (lined) trenches, more than 2. 5 m deep (intrusion limit). After burial the trenches generally are capped with clay or other low-permeability cover material, gravel drainage layers and a topsoil layer. Capping the waste with concrete prevents erosion or water leaching. In arid climates, measures may be taken (e. g. dumping of large rock material on top) to discourage temporarily dwelling construction (e. g. Bedouins), while in other climates sites are contoured and replanted with vegetation for drainage and erosion control. This disposal method may also be applied to NOR-contaminated items. Strongly related option is burial of “NORM” sludge and scale in (deep) surface mines. Possibly with some pre-treatment requirements “NORM” is placed at the bottom of mine excavations and is subsequently buried by accumulated earthen overburden. Typical burial depths are 15 m or greater, and areas are sufficient to accommodate relatively large volumes of wastes. Because of the significant burial depths, the potential for erosion or intrusion into the wastes is remote. Other designated (municipality, oilfield waste, hazardous material, low level) waste sites may take NORM waste. 5 <> 200 Bq[226 Raeq]/g 11 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Deep Geological Disposal Engineered deep underground geological disposal facilities for high or intermediate level waste final disposal may be available. These facilities are used c. q. have been proposed due to their inherent isolation of the wastes from groundwater and from the surrounding environment. Salt provides impermeable containment of wastes at depths of 1, 000 m or more. The salt formation tends to self-anneal any containment defects that may occur, further assuring containment of the wastes. NOR-contaminated sludge, scale and/or gas/oil field items can also be placed in salt domes. Salt caverns have been used to store various hydrocarbon products and to dispose normal oilfield waste. Matrix injection consists of injecting produced water into a deep permeable formation below underground sources of drinking water with no fresh water or mineral value. The formation is confined by impermeable layers that are likely to remain intact. Fracturing injection consists of adding sludges and pulverised scales to a carrier fluid (typically brine) and pumping the mixture into a well of sufficiently high pressure to create a fracture in a permeable formation below underground sources of drinking water with no fresh water or mineral value. The fracture formed by this process is normally vertical, confined above and below by impermeable shale formations. After the sludge-scale water mixture is displaced into the fracture, pressure is reduced and the fracture closes and NORM becomes trapped. Fill a well to be abandoned with NORM encapsulated in connected tubulars (encapsulation), after well is plugged and abandonded. 1, 000 Bq[226 Raeq]/g[solid] G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 12 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

NORM FINAL DISPOSAL OPTIONS Isolation from Environment (approximate CRL´s and costs/drum [1997/9 US data]) • • • “Spreading (with dilution)” Sludge farming Burial with Unrestricted Site Reuse Non-Retrieval of Surface Pipe NORM Disposal Facility Commercial Oil Industrial Waste Facility Commercial Low Level Waste Disposal Site Burial in Surface Mine Well Injection Plugged and Abandoned Well Hydraulic Fracturing Salt Dome Disposal Bq[226 Ra]/g $ 40 2 $ 10 2 5 50 $ 20 200 $ 45 200 $ 400 200 500 $ 120 > 1000 $ 200 > 1000 $ 10 > 1000 13 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Sustainable Environment 14 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Backup Slides

Risk Assessment Matrix The level of control should depend on the level or risk ! 16 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Additional Dose Restrictions Individual Dose Limit (1, 000 m. Sv/a) Source Constraint (300 – 100 m. Sv/a) Exemption (10 m. Sv/a) Intervention Always Justifiable very high 100, 000 m. Sv/a Intervention May Be Justifiable Typical 10, 000 m. Sv/a Intervention Rarely Justifiable background 2, 400 m. Sv/a source 17 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

ESTABLISHMENT OF GENERAL EXEMPT LIMITS RISK Likelihood of Fatal Cancer DOSE Effective Dose in Sievert EXPOSURE Derived Limits to be endorsed by the Competent Authority for any circumstance (Unconditional) External & Internal CONCENTRATION (air, water, soil) Becquerel per m 3, L or g “Forward” Calculation - Applied for Deriving Unconditional Release (Exempt) Limits or for Determining Compliance with Dose or Risk Standards Source Dose Constraint to be endorsed by the Competent Authority 18 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

HIERARCHY OF DOSE QUANTITIES Absorbed Dose (Gy) energy imparted by radiation to unit of mass of tissue (J/kg) Equivalent Dose (Sv) absorbed dose weighted for harmfulness of different radiations (w. R) Effective (Whole Body) Dose (Sv) equivalent dose weighted for susceptibility to harm of different tissues (w. T) Collective Effective Dose (man. Sv) effective dose to all people exposed to a source of radiation 19 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

EXPOSURE OF NATURAL ‘BACKGROUND’ RADIATION Everyone is Exposed to Natural Background Radiation Worldwide Population Averaged Natural Radiation Dose: 2, 400 µSv/y Internal Terrestrial (excl radon/thoron) 12% Internal Radon 47% Internal Thoron 3% Terrestrial 21% Internal Cosmogenic 1% Cosmic 17% 20 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

IONISING RADIATION & CANCER DEVELOPMENT Radiation hits a molecule of a living cell. Was that molecule a DNA molecule? Yes Radiation may or may not cause damage to the molecule. Was the DNA molecule damaged? Yes Damage to a DNA molecule normally corrects itself. Was the damage corrected? No An error remained in the molecule. Was that error of any significance to the cell? Yes The changed characteristics of the new cells may be harmless or harmful. Are they harmful? Yes Cellular reproduction rate may be too slow for cancer to develop during the lifetime of the individual. Is that so? No Cancer cells may be destroyed by the normal immune system of the body. Are these cancer cells destroyed? No A malignant disease will develop. No No No Health Effects to the Individual Yes No No Yes 21 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

RADIATION RISKS “CONSUMER GOODS” (comparison of risks expressed in dose units: Sv{/a}) Record static eliminator Radioactive lightning rod Gas camping lantern mantle (NORM) Cooking on Natural Gas (Radon) Tritium wrist watch Ionisation smoke detector Exempt level (PRACTICE IAEA/EU) Radium wrist watch Flight Amsterdam-Houston (~ 10 h) v. v. Building masonry (NORM) X-Ray Photograph (Chest) Exempt level (WORK ACTIVITY EU, ICRP-2005) Living in a Dutch Dwelling (Radon) Public Limit (ICRP-2005) (World average) Natural Background Dose (radioisotopes) Nuclear Medicine (kidney) X-Ray Photograph (Barium meal) X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT body) Worker Limit (ICRP-2005) 0. 01 0. 5 2. 5 5 5 10 10 30 70 70 100 300 950 1000 2400 2500 3500 8500 20000 22 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

COMPARISON OF RISKS OF (WORKING) LIFE (fatalities per million per year) Exempt level - PRACTICE (10 Sv – IAEA/EU) Clothing & Footwear Timber & Furniture Exempt level - WORK ACTIVITY (300 Sv – EU/ICRP) Textiles Accidents at Work (UK) Public dose limit (1, 000 Sv/a – ICRP) Metal Manufacture Accidents at Home (UK) Natural Background (world average 2, 400 Sv/a) Construction Road Accidents (UK) Coal Mining Radiation worker Dose limit (20, 000 Sv/a - ICRP) Deep Sea Fishing Smoker (10 cigarettes/day) 0. 5 3. 5 10 15 35 50 50 60 100 120 200 250 1000 2000 5000 23 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Risk to People – What Is Reasonable? Intolerable RSSG upper bound for voluntary risk 10 -3 Smoking all accidental (non disease) all accidental (non-disease, non transport) E&P contractors car driving Too high HSE upper bound for involuntary risk Compare options public acceptance of voluntary risk Maintain precautions (due care) Negligible* 10 -4 10 -5 accidents at home E&P company staff accidents at work (average all industries – US ’ 86) playing football/rock climbing Fire Workers in safest industry Light manufacturing RSSG/HSE insignificant public acceptance of Natural disasters 10 -6 air transport Living near nuclear installations public tolerance of man-made disasters 10 -7 insect bites/flooding in the Netherlands lightning strikes explosion of pressure vessel * Proposed by Health & Safety Executive, UK 24 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Unconditional Release Limits (URL) radiation workers 20, 000 m. Sv/a workers (2, 000 h/a) 1, 000 m. Sv/a public 1, 000 m. Sv/a NORM- source constraint 300 m. Sv/a to be issued and endorsed by the competent authority for radiation workers, workforce/public at large source constraint for dose control DOSE annual limits Effective Dose in Sievert set of enveloping exposure scenario’s encompassing all industrial uncontrolled work with “NORM” leading to workforce/public exposure EXPOSURE scenarios External & Internal set of NOR-specific Unconditional Release Limits (URL’s; may be applied under all circumstances) CONCENTRATION (limits for air, water, soil) Becquerel per m 3, L or g competent authority enveloping scenario's URL’s 226 Ra EU BSS ICRP 2005 0. 5 1 210 Pb 5 1 228 Ra 1 1 228 Th 0. 5 1 25 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Dose Assessment Study Conditional Release Limit (referenced against the NORM Source Constraint set by the Competent Authority) Ø Collection/compilation of site specific data characterising the geohydrological setting, background radiation levels and radioactivity concentration in various environmental media including soil, subsoil, surface water, ground water, airborne dusts, fauna and flora. Ø Identification and quantification of the source terms (input of NORM for intended final disposal option), the chemical and physical form of the radionuclides the points of release, and the time distribution of release. Ø Identification of the potential environmental pathways. Ø Identification of the critical population. Ø Assessment of the individual dose using a computer modelling. 26 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

Risk of Radiation Doses Compare with Natural Background Dose 27 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com

28 G. Jonkers, GSEA/4 at SRTCA P. O. Box 38000, 1030 BN Amsterdam E&P NORM Workshop Muscat, February 21 -24, 2005 tel. +31 20 630 3424 Gert. Jonkers@Shell. com