Non Experimental Methods Investigating Behaviour Surveys Questionnaires written

Non Experimental Methods Investigating Behaviour

Surveys �Questionnaires – written or verbal �Interviews �Structured – pre determined questions (questionnaire that is delivered face to face) �Unstructured – Each question is developed as a result of the previous answer. (Clinical interview) �Both can be used to collect quantitative or qualitative data. �What ethical issues should be considered? (3)

Task �What do you think the strengths and limitations would be for: �Questionnaires (2 strengths, 2 weaknesses) �Structured interviews (3 and 3) �Unstructured (2 and 3) �Work in pairs or 3 s to discuss the development, use and analysis of data using these techniques to help you come up with your answers. �Consider how you would feel if you were the participant. �Compare and contrast them.

Evaluation Strengths Questionnaire • Once questionnaire has been designed it s is quick and easy to replicate to collect a large number of responses. • Don’t require specialists administrators. • More willing to give information as feedback would be confidential rather than in interviews/ Structured Interviews Unstructured Interviews • Easily repeated. • Requires less skill than unstructured. • Easier to analyse as answers are more structured/predictability. Weaknesses • Leading questions/social desirability bias - answers not truthful. • Biased sample as only certain types of people are willing to fill in questionnaires. • Interviewer bias. • Data is restricted/limited • People feel less comfortable about revealing information • More detailed information can be elicited. • Interviewer bias (more • Information is less restricted likely than in structured) • Requires well trained interviewers. • Data may not be comparable (questions

Glossary of terms �Leading questions – a question which is worded in a way that makes one answer more liked. ‘Wouldn’t you agree. . . ? ’ �Social Desirability Bias – what people think they should say rather than genuinely think/feel. �Interviewer Bias – what the interviewee thinks the interviewer wants.

Reliability �Consistency. �Experimenters must ensure that the questionnaire they use is reliable to ensure that they are testing what they aim to. �Ie – If the same questionnaire is used with the same participant on 2 different occasions but gain different responses, if the questionnaire was reliable then we can assume that the difference can be attributed to the participant. �Test-retest reliability – repeating questionnaire with same participants to see if the same results are obtained and measured using a correlation coefficient.

Validity �That the questionnaire is measuring what it was designed to measure. �If answers are affected by social desirability bias, interviewer bias etc then the results lack validity. �Concurrent validity – comparing results from new questionnaire with an established study.

Good Questionnaires: �Are clear. �Lack bias �Easy to analyse – closed questions (options given, likert scale) but this makes the data quantitative rather than qualitative. �Good Surveys: �Include filler questions – misleads interviewee to reduce interviewer bias. �Easy qstns at start more difficult at end. �Pilot study

Correlational Design and Analysis �Correlational analysis is used to analyse non- experimental methods (surveys/observations/case studies) as the IV is not being manipulated and there is very little control over extraneous variables. �It is not a research method!

Correlational Design and Analysis �Correlation – a relationship between two variables (co-variables). �Positive correlation – when 2 variables increase together. �Negative correlation – when 1 variable increases and the other decreases.

Zero Correlation �Zero correlation – no relationship between the 2 variables.

Visual Display �Correlations are displayed using a scattergram. �A dot is plotted on a scattergram for each participant’s two answers. Eg weight and hours spent exercising per week.

Statistical Test � In the same way we used T-test for our experimental methods in order to reject our null hypothesis so too do we use statistics in non-experimental methods. � Correlation co-efficient – never greater than 1 (+1 for positive correltaions and -1 for negative correlations). � 1 Is the perfect correlation but is very rare. The strength of correlation is expressed as weak, moderate or strong. � The closer to 1 the number is the stronger the correlation: �+0. 76 (there is a positive and strong correlation between the co-variables) �-0. 76 (there is a negative and strong correlation between the co-variables) �+0. 002 (There is a very weak positive correlation between the co-variables)

Significance �A table of significance is used to determine whether the strength of the correlation (the number) is significant. �The significance is dependent upon the number of participants who took part/responded (N). �Even small numbers (0. 02) can be significant if the N is very large.

Evaluation of investigations using correlational analysis Strengths Weaknesses Can be used when it would be ethically wrong to manipulate variables. Even with a correlation it does not mean there is a cause-effect between the two variables. If the correlation is significant then further research should be carried out/justified. There may be other untested variables that could explain the correlation. If there is a zero correlation then causal relationships can be ruled out. (they don’t cause each other – find other variables)

Observation �The starting point for all investigations. �Must be objective. �If used as part of an experiment then it is a research technique. However, if used on its own it is a research method. �The design of these observations may vary:

Naturalistic Observation �Behaviour is studied in a completely natural setting. �The researcher does not change anything. �This is different from a natural experiment as the experimenters are not looking for a relationship between an IV and a DV.

Example: �Children aged 3 - 5 observed in a playground. Activities were categorised as male, female or neutral. Praise and imitation was recorded as positive responses while criticism and stopping play were recorded as negative responses. �Children generally reinforced peers for gender- appropriate play and criticised genderinappropriate play. �Lamb and Roopnarine, 1979

Controlled Observation �Some variables can be controlled eg setting, objects etc. �Participants are likely to know they are being studied. �Reduces chances of behaviour being completely natural.

Example �Lamb and Roopnarine’s experiment could also have been carried out as a controlled observation. �ie The children could have been out in a playroom where the toys would have been pre chosen by the experimenters. �NB – this is different from Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment as they directly affected the IV (showing the children a video in advance). In this instance observation was used as a technique not a method.

Other types of Observation �Content Analysis – observing written/verbal texts. �Non-participant – observer does not involve themselves simply observes. �Participant – Observers participate. �Disclosed – participant knows they are being observed. �Undisclosed – participant unaware they are being observed.

Example (page 119) �Leon Festinger, a social psychologist, 1950 s. �Religious cults receiving messages from aliens detailing the end of the world. �Believed they would be rescued by a UFO and arranged to meet a set time and location. �Festinger posed as a convert in order to observe their reactions when their beliefs were unfounded. �The night before the predicted flood, when it was apparent that there would be no flood, the cult leader claimed that it was because of their combined prayers. �Observed a mixture of reactions – some didn’t believe and left the cult, others took it as evidence of the cult’s powers.

Reliability �To ensure reliability (consistency) it is always better to have at least 2 observers who produce the same record (if 2 observers have conflicting recordings their observations are not reliable). �Observers should be trained to increase level of reliability. �The extent of this consistency is call interobserver reliability �Measured by correlating the results. To have inter-observer reliability the correlation must be >. 80.

Validity (measuring what it’s supposed to) �Can be affected by observer bias – the observer sees what they want/expect to see rather than being objective. �http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=1 GEEvv. Tii. Qk �Using more than one observer and averaging their responses can help with this. �If participants know they are being observed they may change their behaviour (eg social desirability bias). �Results will not be valid if the coding system is flawed.

Task: �In pairs decide who is A and who is B. �Take it in turns to complete the task. Each task should take 5 minutes. �While one person is completing the task the other person should be recording all aspects of their behaviour: ie facial expressions, verbal cues, body language, etc

Observational techniques �Structured vs Unstructured. �Unstructured (what you did): Observer records everything they believe to be relevant. No system for observing or recording behaviour. �Observer will note only the most obvious behaviour but these may not be the most important (did you see the moonwalking bear? ).

Structured � Systems are put in place to ensure observations are organised and systematic. � Sampling procedure – knowing who you are observing and when. � Observation schedule – how to record the behaviour you are studying. � Continuous observation – Every instance of the relevant behaviour is recorded in great detail. Difficult as it requires a lot of recording if the behaviour is common. � Event sampling – counting the amount of times it occurs. � Time sampling – recording behaviour at set intervals

Observational Schedule/Coding system/Behaviour checklist �Having a pre-made list of relevant behaviour to be observed which helps the observer to deconstruct the behaviour. �They should be objective and leave no room for observer bias. �Be wide spread – cover all possibilities. �Should be discrete – no room for overlaps �http: //www. cs. cmu. edu/afs/cs/project/face/www/fa cs. htm

Research Methods - Summary �Part 1 - http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Lkwsrh 10 OXM �Part 2 - http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Qwcu. Ha. J 7 q 0 I

Case studies �A detailed study of an individual/place/event. �How Freud collected his data – Anna O. �Requires a variety of research methods to develop an informed picture – interviews, tests etc. �Extremely in depth. �Time consuming (longitudinal) – carried out over a long period of time. �Task: What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method? �Try to come up with 3 of each and use your prior knowledge of this topic to help.

Evaluation Advantages Disadvantages Sensitive to the individual Interviewer/observer bias (interpreting what they expect rather than interpreting objectively) Very detailed and in-depth information is gained. Nothing is overlooked. Lack of scientific validity – no cause/effect. High ecological validity. Can’t generalise the results Can be used to investigate rare phenomenon that would be unethical to use experiment for. Impossible to replicate – lacks reliability. Reports of past events cannot be validated – self report techniques are not reliable

Revision �Scholar �Work through the Unit 2 section of Scholar, adding to your notes and completing the interactive activities. Particularly the data analysis – nominal, ordinal and interval data section which we haven’t covered. � 1, 3, 4, 2