New Nationalisms 1930 s 1945 February 13 New
New Nationalisms 1930 s - 1945 February 13
New Nationalisms to 1945 “… Nationalism was a way to become less poor, to send their children to school, benefit from better roads, prices, public services. They [the majority of the people] looked to nationalism for social gains, while the educated few mostly had their eyes on political gains. ” • [B. Davidson, Modern Africa, p. 130]
New Nationalisms to 1945 There were Two major ‘watersheds’ in early ‘colonial world’: - Great Depression (1929 -1935) - World War II – beginning with Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, followed by European/Asian War (1939 -1945) [see lectures Feb. 8 -10] • Each had major impact on evolution of ‘nationalisms’
New Nationalisms to 1945 Economic situation arising from Great Depression revealed degree to which Africa was dependent on healthy functioning of world economy: - Uganda: cotton 80% exports - Gold Coast: cocoa 79% exports - Gambia: peanuts 98% exports - Zanzibar: cloves 61% exports
New Nationalisms to 1945 When Depression caused prices to drop for all commodities produced in Africa: - wages cut - colonial governments attempted to ‘recoup’ Europe’s losses from African through cuts to education, health, welfare
New Nationalisms to 1945 Colonial economics now clear: - where profits were made, bulk of money invested NOT in Africa but in Europe!
New Nationalisms to 1945 Northern Rhodesia: - 1937 more than 4 million pounds in profits, 540, 000 pounds returned to country through taxes. . . - but colony was “too poor” to afford schools.
New Nationalisms to 1945 Gold Coast: - 1920 s-1949 more than half of all profits from mineral exports went directly to Britain. . . - yet colony had only one higher education institution (Achiomota College, 1924) - Most companies foreign owned therefore profits ‘profited’ Europe not Africa
New Nationalisms to 1945 “Population, Area, Trade and Investment: A comparison” (produced for official purposes during the war) [French Equatorial Africa and the Cameroons (Native Intelligence Division 1942): 417]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Combination of: - economic crises everywhere affecting labour, consumption, ability to pay taxes - increasing frustrations of educated Africans with no place in either the economy or the society … Began to ‘radicalize’ both workers and political movements!
New Nationalisms to 1945 Video • Basil Davidson, “This Magnificent African Cake” [46: 40 – 49: 36]
New Nationalisms to 1945 The 1929 “Women’s Riots” or ‘Women’s War” (Southern Nigeria): - response to threatened taxation in a moment of economic decline -- was not uncommon but not usually directed by women
![New Nationalisms to 1945 ‘Women’s War’ (‘Aba Women’s Riots’) 1929: Southern Nigeria [re-enactment]](http://slidetodoc.com/presentation_image/ee5b56af2a51188b5ab42723c968ccb4/image-13.jpg "New Nationalisms to 1945 ‘Women’s War’ (‘Aba Women’s Riots’) 1929: Southern Nigeria [re-enactment]")
New Nationalisms to 1945 ‘Women’s War’ (‘Aba Women’s Riots’) 1929: Southern Nigeria [re-enactment]
New Nationalisms to 1945 “The immediate cause of the women's resistance, however, was. . the women's reasonable suspicion, based on the counting of women and their property, that government intended to tax women. Such taxation, the women protested, would add to the Indirect share of women in the payment of the direct tax on men. .
New Nationalisms to 1945 Thus the Women's War [Ekong Ibaan in Ibibio; Ogu Umu Nwanyi in Igbo – the two ethnic groups from which the women came] as the women themselves termed their resistance – aimed to forestall taxation of women, and to seek redress for the injustices in the colonial economic, social and political system. ” [quoted: “The Abba Women’s Tax War”, ‘Resources’] [see also “Sitting on a Man”, – account of ‘war’ begins p. 172 and shorter account ‘Abba Women’s Riots’, both in ‘Resources’ ]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Gold Coast Cocoa Hold-Ups (1930, 1938): Cocoa Pod [shown in the video: ‘Magnificent African Cake’] See also reference to horrendous impact ‘swollen root disease’ had on this mono-cash crop c. 1950 in Short Story ‘Khaya Tree’ , (Suggested Add’l Rdgs). Another example of what this kind of Dependence meant – here the issue not about the market but rather, disease.
New Nationalisms to 1945 Impact of long-term labour migration: - creating new class of ‘semi-permanent’ workers in cities - undermining self-sustainability of rural areas (turning into ‘labour reserves’, housing women and children, elderly and sick workers) - same time, radicalizing urban politics through workers’ strikes
New Nationalisms to 1945 Workers ‘recruited’ to Senegal: peanut farms, railroad (1940 s? )
New Nationalisms to 1945 Workers’ Strikes [from ‘BBC Story of Africa’ “Between the Wars Nationalism”, Add’l Rdgs. ]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Sudan: Tramway Men On Strike • • "There was a lightening strike of tramway men this morning and many official and businessmen were obliged to use other means of transport. . . This appears to be the first strike of its nature in Sudan and it is all the more regrettable as the tramway men seem to have no legitimate grounds for striking. " [British-owned Sudan Daily Herald, 19 Dec 1936]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Nigeria - Strikes Of Inspectors Threatened • "Streams of sanitary inspectors were seen early this morning moving to and fro with evident signs of dissatisfaction on their faces. One of their main grievances is reported to be the placing of an untrained and illiterate sanitary inspector to supervise their work. A petition has been addressed to the Senior Resident of the Province. " [Nigeria Daily Times, 2 Dec 1936. ]
New Nationalisms to 1945 South Africa - Strike At Krugersdorf “Thirty nine natives on shaft sinking contracts at East Champs d'Or, Krugersdorf, refused to start work and tried to prevent others working. . . they wanted higher pay, although they had signed up to contract. " [South Africa Rand Daily Mail, 5 Dec 1936].
New Nationalisms to 1945 French Soudan (Senegal-Mali): - Dakar-Niger Railway Strike 1947 -48 - spread throughout French West Africa as general ‘workers strike’ - even workers in France supported
New Nationalisms to 1945 Demands: - health care, pensions, family allowances, “same advantages as White workers” - revealed generational differences, recovered role of women - challenged ingrained racial hierarchy
New Nationalisms to 1945 Ousmane Sembene, God’s Bits of Wood: Novel based on strike (full text in ‘Resources’) Excerpts (In Add’l Rdgs): 1. generational tensions, decision to strike (and why) 2. revelations racial hierarchy: impact of strike on both African and French Supervisor 3. politics: attempt to restrict impact of strike from generating General Strike -- fails
New Nationalisms to 1945 French ‘Chef de Service’ c. 1908 Cover of original French novel by Sembene Ousmane
New Nationalisms to 1945 Educated Africans and Radicalization of Politics: In British Colonies where an educated professional elite was slowing growing: "It is the policy to appoint Africans to take the place of Europeans, but the real point of disagreement is as to the rate this process should proceed. The government feels this process is too fast. The people, that it is too slow. " • [Sierra Leone Daily Mail, 3 Dec 1936]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Political parties in 1930 s less accommodating than earlier ‘moderate’ elite because of: - impact of Great Depression, lowered prices paid for agricultural produce and higher prices for imported goods - falling wages, unemployment - impact of long-term cash cropping on environment and food-supplies [comments of Okime Dike (Nigerian historian), ‘video’]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Educated Africans and Radicalization of Politics: - role of the Press [e. g. above Editorial from Sierra Leone, newspaper reports of Strikes, earlier sarcastic poem re: enlisting in WWII (last lecture) – others to come. Also BBC Story of Africa: newspapers, radio & writing links in Add’l Rdgs] - larger, international cultural/political movements [e. g. Pan-Africanism, “Negritude” – more on Pan. Africanism in ‘Case Study Discussion Feb 15 -17]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Who Were the “Educated Africans”? - Colonialism cultivated political activity among ‘moderate’ elite who were closer to British and French (socially, education, culture) than to illiterate and semi-literate, working class and rural Africans - Shaped nature of early nationalism and early nationalist parties • •
New Nationalisms to 1945 Leopold Senghor (1906 – 2001) Senegal
New Nationalisms to 1945 Leopold Senghor: - born near Dakar 1906, father merchant - educated Catholic Mission School and Jesuit College, Dakar - Lycee Louis-le-grand (high-school) - Sorbonne University Paris - one of few to acquire French citizenship
New Nationalisms to 1945 - taught language and literature in France - 1939 mobilized into French Army - taken prisoner June 1940 (18 months German Prison camp): released because of illness - part of National University Front resistance 1942
New Nationalisms to 1945 - 1930 s key figure in intellectual/cultural movement known as ‘Negritude’ - one of ‘les trois pères’ (three fathers – other two being Aimé Césaire from Martinique, Léon-Gontran Damas from French Guyana) - poet, celebrating ‘being African’
New Nationalisms Léopold Sédar Senghor: “ used la Négritude to work toward a universal valuation of African people and their biological contributions. While advocating the expression and celebration of traditional African customs in spirit, he rejected a return to the old ways of doing things. This interpretation of la Négritude tended to be the most common, particularly in later years. ” [from ‘Reading on Negritude’, Suggested Add’l Rdgs; also ‘La Negritude’ for analysis of differences between Senghor’s conception and that of others. ]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Jomo Kenyatta (1889 – 1978) Kenya:
New Nationalisms to 1945 Jomo Kenyatta: - born Kamau Wa Ngengi - primary education Church of Scotland Mission, also learned carpentry - became ‘John Peter’ when converted to Christianity (1914)
New Nationalisms to 1945 Jomo Kenyatta: - worked as clerk to Asian storekeeper, later as storekeeper to European firm - later changed his name to ‘Jomo’ - called himself ‘Kenyatta’ after name of mountain dominating ‘skyline’ of colony Reflected commitment to seeking colony’s Freedom
New Nationalisms to 1945 -had opportunities to travel in Europe and study Soviet Union, then London School Economics - protested against British ‘land grab’ in reserve area Kenya (subsequently labeled ‘communist’)
New Nationalisms to 1945 -wrote book on Kikuyu language -and famous anti-colonial tract Facing Mount Kenya (1938)
New Nationalisms to 1945 "The African is conditioned, by the cultural and social institutions of centuries, to a freedom of which Europe has little conception, and it is not in his nature to accept serfdom for ever. He realizes that he must fight unceasingly for his own complete emancipation; for without this he is doomed to remain the prey of rival imperialisms, which in every successive year will drive their fangs more deeply into his vitality and strength. " • Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya
New Nationalisms to 1945 - owned property in England - spent WWII there - participated in 5 th Pan-Africanist Congress Manchester (1945) [Discussion Case Study, Feb. 15 -17]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904 -1996): - educated in the US (Howard, Lincoln, Pennsylvania Universities) - contemporary of Nkrumah (below) from southern Nigeria - strongly influenced by black radical American journalism
New Nationalisms to 1945 - 1934 returned to job with the African Morning Post (Accra, Gold Coast): successfully politicized ‘the masses’ - charged with sedition for publishing the article Walace-Johnson article “Has the African a God? ” [Azikiwe, in Add’l Rdgs] - established The West African Pilot (Lagos, Nigeria): dedicated to achieving independence from the British [Please • note: there are some inaccuracies in the BBC Story of Africa account of Azikiwe on the ‘Between the Wars: Newspapers’ page]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Kwame Nkrumah, Gold Coast (1909 – 1972)
New Nationalisms to 1945 Kwame Nkrumah: [will meet again in context of ‘Gold Coast to Ghana’ case study] -attended Achiamota College (Gold Coast) - university in US (Pennsylvania) - lived in London - associated with international Pan-Africanists before returning to Gold Coast [more on Pan-Africanism and Nkrumah’s role in it in ‘Case Study Discussion Feb 15 -17]
New Nationalisms to 1945 Nkruma’s Student Visa (for Univ. Pennsylvania)
New Nationalisms to 1945 Kwame Nkruma, University of Pennsylvania, 1935
New Nationalisms to 1945 - established Convention Youth Organization - activity, recruitment grew significantly following WWII Pattern typical evolution of many educated Africans (British and French, to more limited extent in ‘Settler Societies’) in inter-war years [story continues with ‘Case Study: Gold Coast to Ghana]
Pan Africanism To be continued as ‘Case Study: Pan-Africanism’ February 15 -17
- Slides: 50
